Buddhist Monuments with Circumambulatory Corridors 

In 1873, Alexander Cunningham, a renowned archaeologist and the father of Indian archaeology excavated the Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh, India. This stupa, which is one of the encased stupas in India, was found to have a circumambulatory path. Although smaller than the larger stupas at Sanchi, Bhattiprolu, or Amravati, the Bharhut stupa features remarkable sculptural details. The circumambulatory corridor was designed not only for the act of veneration and circumambulation around the stupa but also to allow observers to appreciate the sculptures and ornamentations as part of the socio-political context.

Similarly, the Dharmarajika stupa in Sarnath reveals six successive encasements through archaeological excavations. Notably, circumambulatory paths (Pradakshina-Patha) were added during the second and third phases of enlargement (Mitra, 1971, pp 66-69). At the Amaravati stupa, a circumambulatory passageway was introduced later, positioned between the railing and the drum of the stupa (Mitra, 1971, pp 200-204).

In contrast, the Phra Pathom stupa in Thailand also features a circumambulatory corridor (see Figure 1). Soni noted that this stupa exemplifies encasement, as a new structure enveloped the original shrine to fulfil King Mongkut’s wish to protect the relics (Soni, 1991). Prior to King Rama IV’s restoration, the Phra Pathom stupa was surmounted by a prang inspired by Khmer Prasat architecture. Following the restoration, King Rama IV’s encasement introduced a gallery path between the older and newly encased outer stupas. These structures include circumambulatory paths designed not only for veneration and movement around the stupa but also for the observation and study of the sculptures and decorations, reflecting their political significance.

Similarly, numerous Moathtaw stupas across Myanmar also feature circumambulatory corridors (Bo Kay, 1981, pp 220- 222). Many of these stupas have stone inscriptions detailing the structures built by King Asoka, providing valuable evidence of the active beliefs during the Bagan era. Some Moathtaw stupas constructed by successive kings are solid, while others are hollow with corridors. At Bagan, three Moathtaw stupas include such corridors. Temple No 1182, a uniquely shaped temple at Bagan, is one example of an encased temple featuring a circumambulatory corridor between its inner and outer structures. These corridors are not only for worship and veneration but also for moving around and studying the art and architecture of the inner and outer stupas, reflecting their socio-political context.

Currently, there are eightythree encased monuments at Bagan, making it the richest area of Buddhist monuments in Myanmar. Most of these encased structures were enlarged by secondary donors to enhance the growth and development of Buddhism and its monuments, emphasizing their socio-political stature and aiming to create stronger, larger, and more durable structures.

Inscribed Relic Caskets

In 1854, Alexander Cunningham discovered several important Buddhist sites, including Sanchi and four nearby sites — Sonari, Satdhara, Morel Khurd, and Andheri — in India, located about 10 kilometres from Sanchi. The inscribed reliquaries from these sites link them to a group of Hemavata teachers led by an individual named Gotiputa. The Hemavata may have arrived in Vidisha during the second century BCE (Sunga period), taking over older sites such as Sanchi and Satdhara while establishing new centres at Sonari, Morel Khurd, and Andheri. Inscribed relic caskets from these sites include relics of Sariputta and Mahamoggallana, chief disciples of the Buddha, which were recovered from Stupa 3 at Sanchi and Stupa 2 at Satdhara (Mitra, 1971, pp 96-99; Shaw et al, 2009). These inscriptions and archaeological findings are significant for understanding the religious and socio-political ideas of the time.

At Bhattiprolu village in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India, three unexcavated mounds were discovered in 1870. Alexander Rea conducted archaeological excavations at the site in 1892, uncovering three inscribed stone reliquaries containing crystal reliquaries, Buddha’s relics, and jewels. The base of a great stupa, measuring 40 metres in diameter, was recovered at this site. The relics, including a crystal relic casket, were found at the centre of the stupa. Additionally, a silver reliquary, a gold reliquary, a stone receptacle, a copper vessel, and numerous Buddha images were uncovered. Brahmi scripts inscribed on an urn containing Buddha relics were also found. This inscriptional and archaeological evidence highlights the socio-political purposes of enshrining Buddha’s relics, reflecting the donors’ motivations driven by both religious and political concepts. The inscriptions at Bhattiprolu suggest that the relic stupa was intended not only for worship and veneration but also to enhance social and political stature. Bhattiprolu is known for its Buddhist stupa, which was built around the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, and the inscriptions indicate that King Kaberuka ruled over Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE. Similarly, the inscribed copper relic casket discovered at Shah-ji-ki-dheri in Peshawar documents the Kushan ruler Kanishka (Mitra, 1971, pp 118-120). An inscribed gilded silver relic casket (see Figure 2) discovered at Khinba mound in 1926-27 mentioned royal donors “Sri Prabhu Varman” and “SriPrabhu Devi”, belonging to the 5th-7th century CE (Varman Dynasty) (Aung Thaw et al, 1993). These inscriptions reflect that many donors were motivated by religious and socio-political concepts, aiming to make the relic-imbued stupa prominent for veneration while also enhancing its associated social and economic benefits.

Inscribed Burial Urns

In 1911-12, four inscribed stone burial urns were discovered 183 metres south of Phayagyi stupa in Sri Kshetra, Myanmar. An additional inscribed stone burial urn (see Figure 3) was found at Payahtaung pagoda in 1993. These inscriptions recorded the royal titles, ages, reigns, and dates of demise of various kings. The urns include names such as “Hrivikrama”, “Sihavikrama”, and “Suravikrama” for the earlier period, and “Devamitra”, “Dhammaditravikrama”, “Brahimhtuvikrama”, “Sihavikrama”, “Suriravikrama”, “Harivikrama”, and “Ardhitravikrama” for the later period, dating to the 7th-8th century CE and reflecting the Vikrama Dynasty. These inscribed burial urns from Sri Kshetra provide significant insights into the socio-political ideas of the time.

In Sri Lanka, the Dekkhina Dagaba (stupa) in Anuradhapura was an encasement and enlargement of an earlier construction built over the ashes of King Duthagamani. Traces of charcoal and ashes found in the centre of the dagaba highlight the significance of this site. Similarly, the Kujjatissa Pabbata (stupa), dating to the 8th century CE and located outside the south gate of the city, contains the ashes of the Elara, buried by King Duthagamani (Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1981, p 21). These archaeological findings underscore the socio-political importance of burying the ashes of heroic kings in these stupas.

In Thailand, the Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya (2006) describe the construction of chedis at Wat Phra Si Sanphet. The first chedi, built by King Ramathibodi II (1491-1529 CE) in 1492 CE, enshrined the ashes of his father, King Borommatrailokanat (1448-1463 CE). The second chedi, constructed at the same time, was dedicated to King Borommaracha III (1463- 1488 CE), his elder brother. Forty years later, King Boromracha IV (1529-1533 CE) built the third chedi to enshrine the remains of his father, King Ramathibodi II (Cushman, 2006). The Royal Chronicles also mention that King U Thong (1350-69 CE) arranged for the cremation of two princes, Chao Keo and Chao Thai, and built Wat Pa Kaeo, a stupa, and an assembly hall in their memory. Their ashes may have been enshrined in this stupa. These findings illustrate the religious and socio-political motivations behind enshrining the ashes of heroic kings and royal families in Buddhist monuments across Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, highlighting their desire to enhance the social and economic benefits associated with these relic-imbued structures. 

Conclusion

The examination of enlarged Buddhist structures, inscribed relic caskets, and burial urns reveals significant socio-political and religious dimensions of Buddhist monument development across South and Southeast Asia. From the early mud stupas of Kapilvastu to the sophisticated encased stupas of Bagan and the circumambulatory corridors found in India, Myanmar and Thailand, these architectural and epigraphic records underscore the integration of religious devotion with socio-political ideologies.

The practice of encasing and enlarging stupas, as seen in the actions of King Uzana in Myanmar and various Indian dynasties, reflects a broader trend where subsequent rulers sought to enhance and preserve earlier structures, aligning their contributions with both religious merit and political stature. Similarly, inscribed relic caskets and burial urns from sites such as Bhattiprolu, Sanchi, and Sri Kshetra provide valuable insights into the motivations behind these monumental acts. They reveal how the veneration of relics and the enshrinement of royal ashes served not only spiritual purposes but also reinforced the socio-political status of the donors.

The inclusion of circumambulatory corridors, as evidenced in the stupas of Bharhut, Dharmarajika, and Phra Pathom, illustrates how architectural modifications were employed to enhance the devotional experience and assert political legitimacy. These corridors facilitated both worship and observation of artistic embellishments, contributing to the stupa’s prominence and durability.

In summary, the study of these Buddhist monuments illustrates how religious practices were intertwined with socio-political objectives. The effort to enlarge these structures and inscribe the relic caskets and burial urns highlights a dynamic interplay between spiritual aspirations and the assertion of political power. This interplay not only reflects the enduring legacy of Buddhist art and architecture but also the ways in which it was employed to reinforce and perpetuate socio-political ideologies across centuries and regions.

References

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Introduction

Bagan was the heart of the largest Buddhist empire in the medieval world, serving as a centre of economic, socio-political, and cultural networks that actively exchanged ideas and goods with other regions. The Buddhist culture of Bagan was enriched by a synthesis of Pala Indian styles and local doctrines, fostering religious and royal interactions that were reflected in its extensive architecture, mural paintings, and epigraphic records. The construction of Buddhist monuments in Bagan facilitated exchanges between donors and the royal court, establishing Bagan as the capital of this empire from the 10th century CE, with its peak period occurring between the 11th and 13th centuries CE. During this time, Bagan became the primary focus of religious activity, with the tradition of merit-making playing a crucial role in its development. Many religious structures from this era still survive in Bagan today.

The socio-political ideology in Bagan was characterized by the integration of social and political life, with village life (the heart of Bagan) being centred around Buddhism and the support of the monastic community.

Stupas and temples manifested royalty and social hierarchy by demonstrating power through donatory activities. The kings who ruled during the Bagan period exemplified proper actions and morals, reinforcing the Buddha’s teachings through artistic works such as murals, glazed plaques, and terracotta plaques.

Numerous socio-political ideas are reflected in Buddhist monuments across India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar. At various Buddhist sites in India, such as Kapilvastu in Nepal, original mud Buddhist structures have been discovered. These structures were often enlarged and encased with bricks or stones by subsequent donors to ensure their longevity and durability, reflecting the socio-political ideas of the time. Inscribed reliquaries, such as those found at the Piprahwa and Bhattiprolu stupas, reveal insights into the relics of the Buddha. Similarly, reliquaries from Stupa 3 at Sanchi and Stupa 2 at Satdhara contain inscriptions regarding the relics of the Buddha’s chief disciples, Sariputta and Mahamoggallana.

Additional inscribed reliquaries discovered at Sanchi Stupa 2 and other Bhilsa Tope sites relate to a group of Hemavata teachers led by an individual named Gotiputa, providing valuable insights into religious and socio-political ideas.

An inscribed copper relic casket was discovered at Shahji-ki-Dheri, the site of an ancient Kanishka stupa in Peshawar, Pakistan, while inscribed stone burial urns and a gilded silver relic casket were found at Srikshetra, Myanmar. The ashes of heroic kings of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, buried in stupas, also contribute to understanding socio-political ideas. Additionally, some Buddhist monuments in India, Thailand, and Myanmar feature circumambulatory paths. These paths were designed not only for veneration and movement around the stupa but also for observing the sculptures and decorations as symbols of political stature, highlighting the importance of durability and grandeur in Buddhist structures. Epigraphic records from the Pinya period indicate that King Uzana enlarged and reinforced eight original small stupas built by primary donors, reflecting the overarching socio-political ideas of the time aimed at promoting the growth and development of Buddhism and its structures.

larger stupa, dedicated to the father of the Buddha, was constructed during the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) period in the 6th century BCE, while the smaller stupa, dedicated to Queen Maha Devi, the mother of the Buddha, was built later.

The centre of the larger stupa originally consisted of a mud structure. In the second phase of construction, this mud stupa was encased in tapered bricks (Rijal, 1979, pp 39-42). Archaeological evidence indicates that the inner stupa of the larger structure was initially made of mud and was later encased and enlarged with bricks. This process of encasement and enlargement by secondary donors aimed to strengthen and elaborate the original structure, reflecting socio-political ideas and ensuring its longevity for the development of Buddhism and Buddhist structures. Excavations at Dhamnihawa suggest that the inner mud structure may have been constructed during the lifetime of the Buddha.

In Vaishali, a Buddha’s relic stupa originally built by the Lichchhavis was encased and enlarged by later kings in successive periods. The original inner structure, which may date back to pre-Asokan times, was made of mud and was encased with bricks four times to strengthen and elaborate it. Most Buddhist stupas in India from the pre-Asokan period were constructed of mud, while those from the Mauryan period were made of both mud and brick (Mitra, 1971). Archaeological excavations reveal that the inner stupa at Sanchi was originally built of brick and was later encased and enlarged with stones during the Sunga period to enhance its durability. During the Mauryan period, inner stupas were often made of mud, which deteriorated easily, whereas later structures were primarily of brick. Concerned with the preservation of these original mud structures, subsequent donors encased and enlarged them with stones or bricks, often performing this process five or six times. These actions reflect the socio-political ideas influencing the growth and prosperity of Buddhism and its structures.

While the original Mauryan-period structures were simple in design, later constructions were more elaborately decorated (Mitra, 1971; ASI, 1996, pp 85-88).

Typically, the inner stupas are older and smaller, whereas the outer stupas are younger and larger in India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar. This pattern indicates that later donors were motivated to build more elaborate and larger structures than those created by the primary donors, driven by socio-political ideas. Encasement thus plays a crucial role in the development of stronger and larger Buddhist structures, contributing significantly to the socio-political context of the time.

Epigraphic records indicate that King Uzana, during the Pinya period, encased and enlarged eight stupas, including the Tamote Shwegugyi temple. The Shwezigon stupa stone inscription, dated 1325 CE and located in the ancient city of Makkhaya, Kyaukse region, records that King Uzana enlarged and encased a previous small stupa known as the Mahtaw stupa (Moe, 2008).

Similarly, the Nan Oo stupa stone inscription, dated 1329 CE, mentions that King Uzana also enlarged and encased a small stupa to make it larger, stronger, and more elaborate (Nan Oo stupa stone inscription, 2007).

According to the Mahtaw Zedi stone inscription, dated 1335 CE, King Uzana enlarged and encased the Mahtaw Zedi stupa, originally located to the south of Tapekon village in the ancient city of Myin Khone Taing, Kyaukse region, Myanmar. The enlarged stupa measured 28.80 metres in diameter (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 3, pp 351-352). The Thayegu Phaya stone inscription, dated 1336 CE, notes that a small ruined stupa was rebuilt and encased by King Uzana, resulting in a more elaborate and larger stupa with a diameter of 27.89 metres. This inscription was originally found at the Thayegugyi pagoda to the east of Kinton village, Myin Khone Taing region, Kyaukse District (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 1, p 357).

According to the King Uzana stone inscription dated 1340 CE, found between the farmyards of U Tha Paw and Daw Tin May in TadaU Township, Mandalay, Myanmar, King Uzana, a secondary donor, encased an inner stupa originally built by his son Saw Htwe. The original stupa measured 13.72 metres in diameter, and King Uzana enlarged and elaborated it to make it stronger (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 4, p 13). The Moathtaw Phaya stone inscription, inscribed by King Bodaw Phaya in 1785 CE (DHRNL, 2014, Vol 6, pp 35-38), describes a small Moathtaw stupa in the Makkhaya region that was encased and enlarged by King Uzana to a diameter of 48.00 metres in 1325 CE. Another Moathtaw Phaya stone inscription at Manpaw village in the ancient city of Myin Khone Taing, also inscribed by King Bodaw Phaya in 1785 CE (DHRNL, 2014, Vol 6, pp 94-96), mentions that a small Moathtaw stupa was encased and enlarged by King Uzana to a diameter of 28.80 metres in 1335 CE.

These stone inscriptions reveal that King Uzana encased and enlarged numerous inner stupas during his reign, contributing to the prosperity and development of Buddhism. The epigraphic records confirm how underlying socio-political ideas played a crucial role in the growth and durability of Buddhist structures, illustrating the significance of encasement concepts in Myanmar as evidenced by these inscriptions.

TO BE CONTINUED

Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar