Symbols of Socio-Political Ideologies in Buddhist Architecture

Buddhist Monuments with Circumambulatory Corridors 

In 1873, Alexander Cunningham, a renowned archaeologist and the father of Indian archaeology excavated the Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh, India. This stupa, which is one of the encased stupas in India, was found to have a circumambulatory path. Although smaller than the larger stupas at Sanchi, Bhattiprolu, or Amravati, the Bharhut stupa features remarkable sculptural details. The circumambulatory corridor was designed not only for the act of veneration and circumambulation around the stupa but also to allow observers to appreciate the sculptures and ornamentations as part of the socio-political context.

Similarly, the Dharmarajika stupa in Sarnath reveals six successive encasements through archaeological excavations. Notably, circumambulatory paths (Pradakshina-Patha) were added during the second and third phases of enlargement (Mitra, 1971, pp 66-69). At the Amaravati stupa, a circumambulatory passageway was introduced later, positioned between the railing and the drum of the stupa (Mitra, 1971, pp 200-204).

In contrast, the Phra Pathom stupa in Thailand also features a circumambulatory corridor (see Figure 1). Soni noted that this stupa exemplifies encasement, as a new structure enveloped the original shrine to fulfil King Mongkut’s wish to protect the relics (Soni, 1991). Prior to King Rama IV’s restoration, the Phra Pathom stupa was surmounted by a prang inspired by Khmer Prasat architecture. Following the restoration, King Rama IV’s encasement introduced a gallery path between the older and newly encased outer stupas. These structures include circumambulatory paths designed not only for veneration and movement around the stupa but also for the observation and study of the sculptures and decorations, reflecting their political significance.

Similarly, numerous Moathtaw stupas across Myanmar also feature circumambulatory corridors (Bo Kay, 1981, pp 220- 222). Many of these stupas have stone inscriptions detailing the structures built by King Asoka, providing valuable evidence of the active beliefs during the Bagan era. Some Moathtaw stupas constructed by successive kings are solid, while others are hollow with corridors. At Bagan, three Moathtaw stupas include such corridors. Temple No 1182, a uniquely shaped temple at Bagan, is one example of an encased temple featuring a circumambulatory corridor between its inner and outer structures. These corridors are not only for worship and veneration but also for moving around and studying the art and architecture of the inner and outer stupas, reflecting their socio-political context.

Currently, there are eightythree encased monuments at Bagan, making it the richest area of Buddhist monuments in Myanmar. Most of these encased structures were enlarged by secondary donors to enhance the growth and development of Buddhism and its monuments, emphasizing their socio-political stature and aiming to create stronger, larger, and more durable structures.

Inscribed Relic Caskets

In 1854, Alexander Cunningham discovered several important Buddhist sites, including Sanchi and four nearby sites — Sonari, Satdhara, Morel Khurd, and Andheri — in India, located about 10 kilometres from Sanchi. The inscribed reliquaries from these sites link them to a group of Hemavata teachers led by an individual named Gotiputa. The Hemavata may have arrived in Vidisha during the second century BCE (Sunga period), taking over older sites such as Sanchi and Satdhara while establishing new centres at Sonari, Morel Khurd, and Andheri. Inscribed relic caskets from these sites include relics of Sariputta and Mahamoggallana, chief disciples of the Buddha, which were recovered from Stupa 3 at Sanchi and Stupa 2 at Satdhara (Mitra, 1971, pp 96-99; Shaw et al, 2009). These inscriptions and archaeological findings are significant for understanding the religious and socio-political ideas of the time.

At Bhattiprolu village in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India, three unexcavated mounds were discovered in 1870. Alexander Rea conducted archaeological excavations at the site in 1892, uncovering three inscribed stone reliquaries containing crystal reliquaries, Buddha’s relics, and jewels. The base of a great stupa, measuring 40 metres in diameter, was recovered at this site. The relics, including a crystal relic casket, were found at the centre of the stupa. Additionally, a silver reliquary, a gold reliquary, a stone receptacle, a copper vessel, and numerous Buddha images were uncovered. Brahmi scripts inscribed on an urn containing Buddha relics were also found. This inscriptional and archaeological evidence highlights the socio-political purposes of enshrining Buddha’s relics, reflecting the donors’ motivations driven by both religious and political concepts. The inscriptions at Bhattiprolu suggest that the relic stupa was intended not only for worship and veneration but also to enhance social and political stature. Bhattiprolu is known for its Buddhist stupa, which was built around the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, and the inscriptions indicate that King Kaberuka ruled over Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE. Similarly, the inscribed copper relic casket discovered at Shah-ji-ki-dheri in Peshawar documents the Kushan ruler Kanishka (Mitra, 1971, pp 118-120). An inscribed gilded silver relic casket (see Figure 2) discovered at Khinba mound in 1926-27 mentioned royal donors “Sri Prabhu Varman” and “SriPrabhu Devi”, belonging to the 5th-7th century CE (Varman Dynasty) (Aung Thaw et al, 1993). These inscriptions reflect that many donors were motivated by religious and socio-political concepts, aiming to make the relic-imbued stupa prominent for veneration while also enhancing its associated social and economic benefits.

Inscribed Burial Urns

In 1911-12, four inscribed stone burial urns were discovered 183 metres south of Phayagyi stupa in Sri Kshetra, Myanmar. An additional inscribed stone burial urn (see Figure 3) was found at Payahtaung pagoda in 1993. These inscriptions recorded the royal titles, ages, reigns, and dates of demise of various kings. The urns include names such as “Hrivikrama”, “Sihavikrama”, and “Suravikrama” for the earlier period, and “Devamitra”, “Dhammaditravikrama”, “Brahimhtuvikrama”, “Sihavikrama”, “Suriravikrama”, “Harivikrama”, and “Ardhitravikrama” for the later period, dating to the 7th-8th century CE and reflecting the Vikrama Dynasty. These inscribed burial urns from Sri Kshetra provide significant insights into the socio-political ideas of the time.

In Sri Lanka, the Dekkhina Dagaba (stupa) in Anuradhapura was an encasement and enlargement of an earlier construction built over the ashes of King Duthagamani. Traces of charcoal and ashes found in the centre of the dagaba highlight the significance of this site. Similarly, the Kujjatissa Pabbata (stupa), dating to the 8th century CE and located outside the south gate of the city, contains the ashes of the Elara, buried by King Duthagamani (Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1981, p 21). These archaeological findings underscore the socio-political importance of burying the ashes of heroic kings in these stupas.

In Thailand, the Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya (2006) describe the construction of chedis at Wat Phra Si Sanphet. The first chedi, built by King Ramathibodi II (1491-1529 CE) in 1492 CE, enshrined the ashes of his father, King Borommatrailokanat (1448-1463 CE). The second chedi, constructed at the same time, was dedicated to King Borommaracha III (1463- 1488 CE), his elder brother. Forty years later, King Boromracha IV (1529-1533 CE) built the third chedi to enshrine the remains of his father, King Ramathibodi II (Cushman, 2006). The Royal Chronicles also mention that King U Thong (1350-69 CE) arranged for the cremation of two princes, Chao Keo and Chao Thai, and built Wat Pa Kaeo, a stupa, and an assembly hall in their memory. Their ashes may have been enshrined in this stupa. These findings illustrate the religious and socio-political motivations behind enshrining the ashes of heroic kings and royal families in Buddhist monuments across Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, highlighting their desire to enhance the social and economic benefits associated with these relic-imbued structures. 

Conclusion

The examination of enlarged Buddhist structures, inscribed relic caskets, and burial urns reveals significant socio-political and religious dimensions of Buddhist monument development across South and Southeast Asia. From the early mud stupas of Kapilvastu to the sophisticated encased stupas of Bagan and the circumambulatory corridors found in India, Myanmar and Thailand, these architectural and epigraphic records underscore the integration of religious devotion with socio-political ideologies.

The practice of encasing and enlarging stupas, as seen in the actions of King Uzana in Myanmar and various Indian dynasties, reflects a broader trend where subsequent rulers sought to enhance and preserve earlier structures, aligning their contributions with both religious merit and political stature. Similarly, inscribed relic caskets and burial urns from sites such as Bhattiprolu, Sanchi, and Sri Kshetra provide valuable insights into the motivations behind these monumental acts. They reveal how the veneration of relics and the enshrinement of royal ashes served not only spiritual purposes but also reinforced the socio-political status of the donors.

The inclusion of circumambulatory corridors, as evidenced in the stupas of Bharhut, Dharmarajika, and Phra Pathom, illustrates how architectural modifications were employed to enhance the devotional experience and assert political legitimacy. These corridors facilitated both worship and observation of artistic embellishments, contributing to the stupa’s prominence and durability.

In summary, the study of these Buddhist monuments illustrates how religious practices were intertwined with socio-political objectives. The effort to enlarge these structures and inscribe the relic caskets and burial urns highlights a dynamic interplay between spiritual aspirations and the assertion of political power. This interplay not only reflects the enduring legacy of Buddhist art and architecture but also the ways in which it was employed to reinforce and perpetuate socio-political ideologies across centuries and regions.

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