THE widespread use of mobile phones, particularly among students, has raised concerns about their impact on mental health and learning. In response, some U.S. states and countries like France, Finland, Sweden, Australia, and Russia have enacted laws banning mobile phone use in schools. These measures aim to reduce distractions and safeguard the well-being of students.

Initially designed for communication, mobile phones have evolved into powerful devices with advanced applications, making them essential in daily life. Youth, in particular, are drawn to these technologies. However, the increasing reliance on mobile phones, computers, and other digital devices among school-age children has created several issues. Excessive mobile phone use can lead to social problems, mental health challenges, and harmful behaviours such as cyberbullying and cybercrime. These issues often occur in schools, disrupting students’ learning, health, and well-being.

In Myanmar, although mobile technology is not as advanced as in other countries, there is still a need to address the potential threats posed by mobile phone misuse among students. Proactively educating students on the responsible use of mobile phones and limiting their access during school hours can help mitigate the negative impacts of these devices. If done correctly, the younger generation will be better equipped to use mobile phones efficiently in their daily lives without succumbing to harmful effects.

A 2023 report by the PEW Research Centre revealed that 95 per cent of teenagers aged 13 to 17 worldwide use smartphones. Surveys indicate that teenagers spend an average of 4.8 hours per day on social media platforms. Studies show that using mobile phones for more than three hours a day can lead to mental health issues. Despite these risks, the number of young people using smartphones continues to rise.

Given these trends, it is crucial to consider how mobile phones are used in schools carefully. Restricting phone use during school hours is essential to ensure that students can focus on their education and avoid the adverse effects associated with excessive screen time. By limiting mobile phone access, schools can create an environment that fosters learning, protects mental health, and prepares students for a balanced future.

Currently, countries around the world are striving to improve communication technologies to enable smoother and more efficient connections. Technological advancements benefit society by reducing the time needed to accomplish tasks and enhancing socioeconomic conditions. However, it is important to ensure that young people do not overuse smartphones, as excessive reliance on applications can lead to negative consequences.

WHEN I first encountered the term ‘eBook readers’, I assumed that it referred to people, as the word ‘readers’ suggested individuals who read. However, after looking into it, I found that eBook readers are actually inanimate devices, not human beings. Later, when I introduced these devices to my students in the classroom, I discovered many benefits.

However, in the current era, I have faced certain challenges due to parents who are reluctant to give their children smartphones as they feel it is inappropriate. This article is written specifically for those parents.

The Dawn of eBook Readers

As the sun rises in the digital age, the dawn of eBook readers signifies a transformative shift in how we consume literature and information. This revolution, much like the first light of dawn breaking through the night, brings with it new possibilities and unprecedented convenience for readers around the globe.

The advent of eBook readers has fundamentally changed the landscape of reading. Gone are the days when one needed to lug around heavy books or find space on crowded shelves. With eBook readers, entire libraries now fit into sleek, portable devices, offering a new horizon where accessibility and ease go hand in hand.

In a world increasingly concerned with sustainability, the environmental benefits of eBook readers cannot be overstated. Traditional book production involves significant use of natural resources and contributes to deforestation. eBook readers, on the other hand, offer a greener alternative by reducing the need for paper and minimizing the carbon footprint associated with the publishing industry.

eBook readers also enhance the reading experience through customization. Users can adjust font sizes, styles, and screen brightness to suit their preferences, making reading more comfortable and personalized. Features like built-in dictionaries, note-taking capabilities, and hyperlinks enrich the reader’s interaction with the text, creating a dynamic and engaging experience.

eBook readers open up new worlds for those with visual impairments or reading difficulties. Adjustable font sizes, text-to-speech functions, and integrated audiobooks make literature more accessible to a broader audience, fostering an inclusive environment where everyone can enjoy the joys of reading. In our fast-paced world, eBook readers cater to the need for instant gratification. With just a few clicks, users can download new releases, classics, or even niche genres, all without stepping out of their homes.

Additionally, eBooks are often more cost-effective than physical books, with many classic titles available for free or at a fraction of the cost. The dawn of eBook readers marks just the beginning. As technology continues to evolve, we can anticipate even more advancements in the realm of digital reading. From interactive content to augmented reality features, the future holds exciting prospects for how we engage with written works. 

The emergence of eBook readers symbolizes a bright new day for literature and information consumption. Just as dawn heralds the start of a new day, eBook readers usher in an era of unprecedented accessibility, environmental sustainability, and personalized reading experiences. Embracing this dawn crack means stepping into a future where the joys of reading are more accessible and engaging than ever before.

The Excellent Benefits of eBook Readers 

The digital age has revolutionized countless aspects of our lives, and the way we read books is no exception. eBook readers have emerged as a transformative technology, offering an array of benefits that traditional books cannot match. Here’s why eBook readers are more than just a passing trend. One of the most significant advantages of eBook readers is their portability. Imagine having an entire library at your fingertips, all contained within a sleek, lightweight device. Whether you’re commuting to work, travelling abroad, or simply lounging at home, an eBook reader allows you to carry hundreds, if not thousands, of books without the bulk and weight of physical copies.

eBooks are often more affordable than their printed counterparts. Publishers save on printing, distribution, and storage costs, which translates to lower prices for consumers. Additionally, many classic literature works and public domain books are available for free, making eBook readers a budget-friendly choice for avid readers.

Switching to eBooks has positive environmental implications.

The production of physical books involves significant resource consumption and carbon emissions, from paper production to transportation. By opting for digital books, you’re contributing to the reduction of deforestation and the carbon footprint associated with traditional publishing.

eBook readers come with various built-in features that enhance the reading experience. Integrated dictionaries, note-taking capabilities, and highlighting tools make it easy to interact with the text in meaningful ways. Some devices even offer internet connectivity, allowing for instant access to additional resources and book purchases.

These features are especially useful for students and researchers. For those who love to collect books, space can become an issue. eBook readers eliminate the need for physical storage, freeing up your living space while still satisfying your reading habits. This is particularly advantageous for city dwellers or those with limited space. By the way, I remember the days when my Dad was alive. He was a bookworm, and his hobby was collecting books.

Therefore, there were huge bookshelves in our living room. He was always proud of his own books. If he knew about eBooks like now …

In the digital era, we’ve become accustomed to instant access to information and entertainment. eBook readers cater to this demand by allowing users to download books instantly from online stores and libraries. Gone are the days of waiting for a book to be shipped or finding time to visit a bookstore – your next read is just a click away.

eBooks can incorporate multimedia elements such as audio, video, and interactive graphics, providing a richer and more engaging experience than traditional books. This is especially valuable for educational materials, where interactive content can enhance understanding and retention.

In addition, eBook readers offer a host of excellent benefits, from convenience and customization to environmental sustainability and cost savings. As technology continues to advance, eBook readers will likely become even more integrated into our daily lives, shaping the future of reading for generations to come. So, why not embrace this digital revolution and explore the world of eBooks? Your next great read is waiting.

The Pros and Cons of eBook Readers

In the era of digital technology, eBook readers have carved a niche for themselves among avid readers and casual book lovers alike. While these devices offer numerous advantages, they also come with certain drawbacks. Let’s explore the pros and cons of eBook readers to help you decide if they’re the right choice for you.

Pros of eBook Readers

One of the most significant benefits of eBook readers is their portability. You can carry an entire library with you, whether you’re commuting, travelling, or just lounging at home. The lightweight and compact design makes it easy to store and access hundreds of books without the bulk. eBooks are generally cheaper than physical books. The reduced costs of printing, distribution, and storage mean savings are passed on to the consumer. Additionally, many classic works and public domain books are available for free or at a nominal cost.

eBook readers offer a personalized reading experience. Users can adjust the font size, style, and background colour to suit their preferences. Features like built-in dictionaries and note-taking tools enhance the reading experience, making it more interactive and engaging.

By opting for eBooks, readers contribute to environmental sustainability. The production of physical books involves significant resource consumption and carbon emissions. eBook readers reduce the need for paper and help lower the carbon footprint of the publishing industry.

For those with limited space, eBook readers are a godsend. You no longer need to worry about finding space for your growing book collection. Everything is stored digitally, freeing up physical space in your home.

Cons of eBook Readers

While eBooks may be cheaper, the initial cost of purchasing an eBook reader can be a barrier for some. Devices can range in price, and the investment might not be justified for occasional readers. Prolonged screen time can lead to digital fatigue, including eye strain and headaches. Unlike physical books, eBook readers rely on screens, which may not be comfortable for all readers, especially during extended reading sessions.

While eBook readers have decent battery life, they still require charging. A dead battery at a critical reading moment can be frustrating, whereas physical books never run out of power. With eBooks, the concept of ownership changes. You’re essentially buying a licence to read the book, which means you can’t easily share or lend books as you would with physical copies. Digital rights management (DRM) restrictions can further complicate this aspect.

Many readers cherish the tactile sensation of holding a physical book, the smell of the paper, and the joy of turning pages. eBook readers can’t replicate this sensory experience, which may detract from the overall enjoyment for some book lovers.

In brief, eBook readers offer numerous benefits, including portability, cost savings, and a customizable reading experience. However, they also come with drawbacks, such as digital fatigue and the loss of the sensory experience associated with physical books. Ultimately, the choice between eBooks and traditional books comes down to

personal preference and reading habits. As the digital landscape continues to evolve, so too will our ways of engaging with literature. Embracing both formats may offer the best of both worlds. Regardless of whatever the issue may be, I have been making my students use many eBook readers in my classroom and their homes since the New Normal began in our society.

Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar

We all have a thing that we can’t help doing almost every day. This is nothing but mathematics. We would like to listen to music; this is just mathematics because the rhythmic beats of melody make us pleasant in our hearing, and how many beats offer pleasure to us relies on mathematics, as Dr Khin Maung Win, who is U Khin Maung Latt and Daw Khin Myo Chit’s son, said. Of course, we must number items or calculate costs nearly daily.

These are mathematics only. So, even though we do not like mathematics at all, this subject is impossible to be negligible in one way or another. We can study essential mathematics based on Gagne’s Information. Processing Model of Learning. Now, this model will be explained in the following.

In his book Essentials of Learning for Instruction (1975), Gagne forwarded the theory concerning how humans obtain information during a learning process. According to his learning theory, stimuli from the external environment will activate the nervous system through the human sensory organs. This information will be interpreted in the short-term memory, encoded transit and stored in the long-term memory in conceptual form. When retrieved, it will first enter the response operator, which can decide, control and implement the form of human behaviour that interacts with the environment. According to Gagne, experiences kept in long-term memory are important for humans to facilitate the process of new learning.

Founded on his theory, Gagne later ascertained and suggested the eight phases usually experienced by the human mind during a certain learning process. Those eight phases are motivation, comprehension, storing, retention, recall, generalization, performance, and feedback.

Firstly, signal learning is the most primitive form of learning, and it can be grouped under the classical conditioning theory of learning, as explained by Pavlov. For example, humans learn the signal of smoke as fire and that of lightning as thunder 

through experience. 

Secondly, stimulus-response learning is related to stimuli that have been planned and stimulated with individuals’ responses in order to produce changes in their behaviour, which can be classified under the operant conditioning suggested by Skinner. For instance, the teacher shows a pyramid object for students to read out `pyramid’.

Thirdly, chain learning refers to various relationships which occur after the process of stimulus-response learning with the aim of upgrading the learning stage to a higher level. For example, one is able to make sentences by relating words such as `Health is a gift of nature’.

Fourthly, verbally associated learning is the primary form of learning a language. One example of this learning is the name of a person with his address, such as `Saw Thae Aung from Thebwet’. 

Fifthly, multiple discrimination learning means selecting one response only from various stimuli in learning. One instance of this learning is that after learning the difference in pronouncing the scientific name Amoeba in Biology and the person’s name Moe Moe in Myanmar, it will enable a student to pick one only to pronounce `moe’ in Amoeba. 

Sixthly, conceptual learning is referred to as learning in forming concepts with representative symbols based on the same characteristics. For example, birds, chickens, and ducks belong to the bird family, and cats, tigers, and lions are also related to the cat family.

Seventhly, principal learning is the relationship between two or more concepts that have been learned. For instance, `Water flows to a lower level’ is a principle in which water is seen to be able to flow and take space in any lower place. 

Eighthly, problem-solving learning is learning through the thinking process by using concepts and principles which have been learnt. For example, the exact height of a pyramid in Egypt can be calculated in accordance with similar triangles, namely by Thales. According to Gagne, the four important categories which must be mastered by students in mathematics are fact, skill, concept and principle. Mathematical facts are the language of mathematics, such as symbols to present numbers (e.g. 0, 1, 2, 3), operation signs (e.g. +, -, ×, ÷), and Greek alphabets (e.g. alpha, beta, theta, phi).

These mathematical facts can learned through memorization, verbal or written practice, and games under stimulus-response learning. Mathematical skills are procedure operation-out accuracy in a reasonable, appropriate time. Examples of such skills include constructing the right angle and drawing circles, which are mastered through practice and games. As such, this type of learning is actually chain learning. Mathematical concepts are abstract ideas derived from concrete examples, 

such as definitions given in the form of set and perimeter. Those concepts can be done through understanding definitions or observations of concept-related objects. Hence, this learning is called conceptual learning.

Finally, the mathematical principle is an integration of and relationship between the concepts of mathematics. These concepts can be learned through the process of inquiry-discovery or problem-solving. A student is said to have mastered a certain principle when he can ascertain the concepts contained in the principle, relate these concepts according to a suitable sequence, and apply this principle in some specific situation.

This kind of learning is simply problem-solving, which is considered the most complex level of learning. Bruner’s other theorems of learning mathematics are still left that should be studied, as follows.

Theorem of construction:

The most effective way for a student to master a certain mathematical concept, principle or law is to construct a representation to express this mathematical concept, principle or law, where practical activities should be carried out.

For example, a student might master the commutative law using the discovery method to obtain the law by means of such a few operations as addition and multiplication.

Theorem of notation: Mathematical notations should be introduced according to a student’s cognitive development. For example, in the teaching of algebraic equations, it is better to start with notations such as y= 2x + 3. After mastering this, the equation y = f(x) could be introduced at the upper secondary school level.

Theorem of contrast and variation: The procedure to introduce abstract representation from concrete representation involves contrast and variation operations. Most mathematical concepts will not be meaningful if they cannot be distinguished from other concepts. For example, concepts like curve, radius, and diameter can be more meaningful only if their characteristics can be distinguished. Other than this, every new mathematical concept should be introduced with various types of examples — 3x+ 4x = ?, 3x + ? = 7x, ? + 4x= 7x.

The theorem of relation:

Every mathematical concept, principle and skill ought to relate to other concepts, principles and skills. During the teaching process, a teacher should use existing concepts, principles or skills to form new ones. For example, the operation in multiplication goes well only after that in addition. And the operation of differentiation is inversely related to that of integration.

Some students fear mathematics like a ghost, while others get bored with doing mathematics. Then, they will be in poor mathematics quite undesirably. In fact, students should not do badly in mathematics in one way or the other. What I learned from an article in Mingala Maung Mel Magazine, as far as I can remember, is that someone has to familiarize themself with anything that he is afraid of. Really, we can learn mathematics by doing only. Students who are not interested in mathematics are also given the opportunity to solve mathematical problems with a will.

In actual fact, when students learn mathematical sums, they need to understand mathematical concepts all first but not memorize them by heart. Second, they had better do these sums all by themselves. Lastly, they should frequently do their well-learnt mathematical calculations very repeatedly. If they wish, they can try to find solutions to unseen math problems.

Mathematics is the language of physics, as the old curriculum on Grade 9 Physics stated. That is, mathematics and physics often go hand in hand, and it will not be difficult for a student to become an outstanding one in Physics if he has a good command of math. Clearly, mathematics takes an enormous role not only in physics but also in other fields of study, such as engineering, chemistry, research, medicine, meteorology, hydrology, and even literature. Finally, there is only one thing that I want to say once again. Learn mathematics by doing only!

Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar

HUMAN resources, alongside money, materials, and manpower, are essential for a country’s development. By investing in education, countries aim to cultivate skilled human resources, which are crucial for their growth and progress.

The interim census of 2019 revealed that 18.2 million people over the age of 25 missed out on completing middle school education and lower levels. In response, the government prioritizes projects aimed at enhancing the education sector. Surveys show that only about 20 per cent of students who began kindergarten reach the matriculation level, meaning over 80 per cent of students do not advance beyond primary and middle school education.

In this context, the primary reason for halting education is the need for families to earn income and support family businesses. All citizens must understand the importance of completing at least basic education through middle school rather than settling for minimal literacy.

Currently, the government provides opportunities for students who have completed middle school to pursue further education in agriculture, livestock, and industrial techniques. They can either enter vocational training and join the workforce or continue their education at higher levels. However, if they discontinue their education due to poverty, they risk becoming trapped in a cycle of poverty with limited capacity to improve their situation.

Therefore, it is essential for both children and parents to fully understand the learning opportunities provided by the government for ongoing education. By taking advantage of these opportunities with diligence, perseverance, and hard work, they can improve their socioeconomic status.

Significantly, governments are implementing projects to provide learning opportunities for children aged 10 to 14 who missed out on primary education for various reasons, as well as for those aged 13 to 18 who need alternative middle school education. Students who complete middle school will then have the opportunity to pursue a basic high school education. The success of this alternative education system relies on the thorough understanding and engagement of both students and parents.

The Constitution (2008) states that all citizens shall have a chance to learn in accord with the educational policies adopted by the government. Additionally, the government has implemented compulsory primary education, and all citizens must complete primary school education at a minimum. Since high-quality education is crucial for the State’s development and the democratization of the nation, all citizens need to take advantage of the educational opportunities provided by the government.

Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar

Buddhist Monuments with Circumambulatory Corridors 

In 1873, Alexander Cunningham, a renowned archaeologist and the father of Indian archaeology excavated the Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh, India. This stupa, which is one of the encased stupas in India, was found to have a circumambulatory path. Although smaller than the larger stupas at Sanchi, Bhattiprolu, or Amravati, the Bharhut stupa features remarkable sculptural details. The circumambulatory corridor was designed not only for the act of veneration and circumambulation around the stupa but also to allow observers to appreciate the sculptures and ornamentations as part of the socio-political context.

Similarly, the Dharmarajika stupa in Sarnath reveals six successive encasements through archaeological excavations. Notably, circumambulatory paths (Pradakshina-Patha) were added during the second and third phases of enlargement (Mitra, 1971, pp 66-69). At the Amaravati stupa, a circumambulatory passageway was introduced later, positioned between the railing and the drum of the stupa (Mitra, 1971, pp 200-204).

In contrast, the Phra Pathom stupa in Thailand also features a circumambulatory corridor (see Figure 1). Soni noted that this stupa exemplifies encasement, as a new structure enveloped the original shrine to fulfil King Mongkut’s wish to protect the relics (Soni, 1991). Prior to King Rama IV’s restoration, the Phra Pathom stupa was surmounted by a prang inspired by Khmer Prasat architecture. Following the restoration, King Rama IV’s encasement introduced a gallery path between the older and newly encased outer stupas. These structures include circumambulatory paths designed not only for veneration and movement around the stupa but also for the observation and study of the sculptures and decorations, reflecting their political significance.

Similarly, numerous Moathtaw stupas across Myanmar also feature circumambulatory corridors (Bo Kay, 1981, pp 220- 222). Many of these stupas have stone inscriptions detailing the structures built by King Asoka, providing valuable evidence of the active beliefs during the Bagan era. Some Moathtaw stupas constructed by successive kings are solid, while others are hollow with corridors. At Bagan, three Moathtaw stupas include such corridors. Temple No 1182, a uniquely shaped temple at Bagan, is one example of an encased temple featuring a circumambulatory corridor between its inner and outer structures. These corridors are not only for worship and veneration but also for moving around and studying the art and architecture of the inner and outer stupas, reflecting their socio-political context.

Currently, there are eightythree encased monuments at Bagan, making it the richest area of Buddhist monuments in Myanmar. Most of these encased structures were enlarged by secondary donors to enhance the growth and development of Buddhism and its monuments, emphasizing their socio-political stature and aiming to create stronger, larger, and more durable structures.

Inscribed Relic Caskets

In 1854, Alexander Cunningham discovered several important Buddhist sites, including Sanchi and four nearby sites — Sonari, Satdhara, Morel Khurd, and Andheri — in India, located about 10 kilometres from Sanchi. The inscribed reliquaries from these sites link them to a group of Hemavata teachers led by an individual named Gotiputa. The Hemavata may have arrived in Vidisha during the second century BCE (Sunga period), taking over older sites such as Sanchi and Satdhara while establishing new centres at Sonari, Morel Khurd, and Andheri. Inscribed relic caskets from these sites include relics of Sariputta and Mahamoggallana, chief disciples of the Buddha, which were recovered from Stupa 3 at Sanchi and Stupa 2 at Satdhara (Mitra, 1971, pp 96-99; Shaw et al, 2009). These inscriptions and archaeological findings are significant for understanding the religious and socio-political ideas of the time.

At Bhattiprolu village in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India, three unexcavated mounds were discovered in 1870. Alexander Rea conducted archaeological excavations at the site in 1892, uncovering three inscribed stone reliquaries containing crystal reliquaries, Buddha’s relics, and jewels. The base of a great stupa, measuring 40 metres in diameter, was recovered at this site. The relics, including a crystal relic casket, were found at the centre of the stupa. Additionally, a silver reliquary, a gold reliquary, a stone receptacle, a copper vessel, and numerous Buddha images were uncovered. Brahmi scripts inscribed on an urn containing Buddha relics were also found. This inscriptional and archaeological evidence highlights the socio-political purposes of enshrining Buddha’s relics, reflecting the donors’ motivations driven by both religious and political concepts. The inscriptions at Bhattiprolu suggest that the relic stupa was intended not only for worship and veneration but also to enhance social and political stature. Bhattiprolu is known for its Buddhist stupa, which was built around the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, and the inscriptions indicate that King Kaberuka ruled over Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE. Similarly, the inscribed copper relic casket discovered at Shah-ji-ki-dheri in Peshawar documents the Kushan ruler Kanishka (Mitra, 1971, pp 118-120). An inscribed gilded silver relic casket (see Figure 2) discovered at Khinba mound in 1926-27 mentioned royal donors “Sri Prabhu Varman” and “SriPrabhu Devi”, belonging to the 5th-7th century CE (Varman Dynasty) (Aung Thaw et al, 1993). These inscriptions reflect that many donors were motivated by religious and socio-political concepts, aiming to make the relic-imbued stupa prominent for veneration while also enhancing its associated social and economic benefits.

Inscribed Burial Urns

In 1911-12, four inscribed stone burial urns were discovered 183 metres south of Phayagyi stupa in Sri Kshetra, Myanmar. An additional inscribed stone burial urn (see Figure 3) was found at Payahtaung pagoda in 1993. These inscriptions recorded the royal titles, ages, reigns, and dates of demise of various kings. The urns include names such as “Hrivikrama”, “Sihavikrama”, and “Suravikrama” for the earlier period, and “Devamitra”, “Dhammaditravikrama”, “Brahimhtuvikrama”, “Sihavikrama”, “Suriravikrama”, “Harivikrama”, and “Ardhitravikrama” for the later period, dating to the 7th-8th century CE and reflecting the Vikrama Dynasty. These inscribed burial urns from Sri Kshetra provide significant insights into the socio-political ideas of the time.

In Sri Lanka, the Dekkhina Dagaba (stupa) in Anuradhapura was an encasement and enlargement of an earlier construction built over the ashes of King Duthagamani. Traces of charcoal and ashes found in the centre of the dagaba highlight the significance of this site. Similarly, the Kujjatissa Pabbata (stupa), dating to the 8th century CE and located outside the south gate of the city, contains the ashes of the Elara, buried by King Duthagamani (Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1981, p 21). These archaeological findings underscore the socio-political importance of burying the ashes of heroic kings in these stupas.

In Thailand, the Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya (2006) describe the construction of chedis at Wat Phra Si Sanphet. The first chedi, built by King Ramathibodi II (1491-1529 CE) in 1492 CE, enshrined the ashes of his father, King Borommatrailokanat (1448-1463 CE). The second chedi, constructed at the same time, was dedicated to King Borommaracha III (1463- 1488 CE), his elder brother. Forty years later, King Boromracha IV (1529-1533 CE) built the third chedi to enshrine the remains of his father, King Ramathibodi II (Cushman, 2006). The Royal Chronicles also mention that King U Thong (1350-69 CE) arranged for the cremation of two princes, Chao Keo and Chao Thai, and built Wat Pa Kaeo, a stupa, and an assembly hall in their memory. Their ashes may have been enshrined in this stupa. These findings illustrate the religious and socio-political motivations behind enshrining the ashes of heroic kings and royal families in Buddhist monuments across Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, highlighting their desire to enhance the social and economic benefits associated with these relic-imbued structures. 

Conclusion

The examination of enlarged Buddhist structures, inscribed relic caskets, and burial urns reveals significant socio-political and religious dimensions of Buddhist monument development across South and Southeast Asia. From the early mud stupas of Kapilvastu to the sophisticated encased stupas of Bagan and the circumambulatory corridors found in India, Myanmar and Thailand, these architectural and epigraphic records underscore the integration of religious devotion with socio-political ideologies.

The practice of encasing and enlarging stupas, as seen in the actions of King Uzana in Myanmar and various Indian dynasties, reflects a broader trend where subsequent rulers sought to enhance and preserve earlier structures, aligning their contributions with both religious merit and political stature. Similarly, inscribed relic caskets and burial urns from sites such as Bhattiprolu, Sanchi, and Sri Kshetra provide valuable insights into the motivations behind these monumental acts. They reveal how the veneration of relics and the enshrinement of royal ashes served not only spiritual purposes but also reinforced the socio-political status of the donors.

The inclusion of circumambulatory corridors, as evidenced in the stupas of Bharhut, Dharmarajika, and Phra Pathom, illustrates how architectural modifications were employed to enhance the devotional experience and assert political legitimacy. These corridors facilitated both worship and observation of artistic embellishments, contributing to the stupa’s prominence and durability.

In summary, the study of these Buddhist monuments illustrates how religious practices were intertwined with socio-political objectives. The effort to enlarge these structures and inscribe the relic caskets and burial urns highlights a dynamic interplay between spiritual aspirations and the assertion of political power. This interplay not only reflects the enduring legacy of Buddhist art and architecture but also the ways in which it was employed to reinforce and perpetuate socio-political ideologies across centuries and regions.

References

ASI. (1996). Archaeological Remains, Monuments and Museums, Part-1 & Part-2,

Director General of Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi.

Aung Thaw, U, Myint Aung, Sein Maung Oo and Than Swe. (1993). Shae haung Myanmar myo daw mya [Ancient Myanmar Cities]. Yangon: Ministry of Information.

Bo Kay, U. (1981). Bagan thu te tha na lan nyun [Guide to Bagan Research]. Sapay Beikhman Press, Yangon.

Cushman, Richard D., and David K. Wyatt. (2006). The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya.

Bangkok: Siam Society,

DHRNL. (2014). Mandalay Mahamuni dataing awin shi kyauksarmyar (Atwe-Chauk). Stone Inscriptions are located in the walled enclosure of the Mahamuni stupa. Vol-6, Theikpan Press, Mandalay.

Ministry of Cultural Affairs. (1981). A Guide to Anuradhapura, Central Cultural Fund,

Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Mitra, Debala. (1971). Buddhist Monuments. Shishu Sahityu Samsad Pvt. Ld., The India Press Pvt Ld., Calcutta.

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Nyein Maung, U. (1972). Shae haung Myanmar kyauk sar myar (Atwe-tit) [Ancient Myanmar Stone Inscriptions (Volume-1)], Yangon: Department of Archaeology.

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Nyein Maung, U. (1998). Shae haung Myanmar kyauk sar myar (Atwe-lay) [Ancient Myanmar Stone Inscriptions (Volume-4)], Yangon: Department of Archaeology.

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Shaw, Julia, (2009). Stupas, Monasteries and Relics in the Landscape: Typological, Spatial, and Temporal Patterns in the Sanchi Area, Institute of Archaeology, University College London.

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Motilal Banarsidass Publishers PVT.LTD, Delhi.

Introduction

Bagan was the heart of the largest Buddhist empire in the medieval world, serving as a centre of economic, socio-political, and cultural networks that actively exchanged ideas and goods with other regions. The Buddhist culture of Bagan was enriched by a synthesis of Pala Indian styles and local doctrines, fostering religious and royal interactions that were reflected in its extensive architecture, mural paintings, and epigraphic records. The construction of Buddhist monuments in Bagan facilitated exchanges between donors and the royal court, establishing Bagan as the capital of this empire from the 10th century CE, with its peak period occurring between the 11th and 13th centuries CE. During this time, Bagan became the primary focus of religious activity, with the tradition of merit-making playing a crucial role in its development. Many religious structures from this era still survive in Bagan today.

The socio-political ideology in Bagan was characterized by the integration of social and political life, with village life (the heart of Bagan) being centred around Buddhism and the support of the monastic community.

Stupas and temples manifested royalty and social hierarchy by demonstrating power through donatory activities. The kings who ruled during the Bagan period exemplified proper actions and morals, reinforcing the Buddha’s teachings through artistic works such as murals, glazed plaques, and terracotta plaques.

Numerous socio-political ideas are reflected in Buddhist monuments across India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar. At various Buddhist sites in India, such as Kapilvastu in Nepal, original mud Buddhist structures have been discovered. These structures were often enlarged and encased with bricks or stones by subsequent donors to ensure their longevity and durability, reflecting the socio-political ideas of the time. Inscribed reliquaries, such as those found at the Piprahwa and Bhattiprolu stupas, reveal insights into the relics of the Buddha. Similarly, reliquaries from Stupa 3 at Sanchi and Stupa 2 at Satdhara contain inscriptions regarding the relics of the Buddha’s chief disciples, Sariputta and Mahamoggallana.

Additional inscribed reliquaries discovered at Sanchi Stupa 2 and other Bhilsa Tope sites relate to a group of Hemavata teachers led by an individual named Gotiputa, providing valuable insights into religious and socio-political ideas.

An inscribed copper relic casket was discovered at Shahji-ki-Dheri, the site of an ancient Kanishka stupa in Peshawar, Pakistan, while inscribed stone burial urns and a gilded silver relic casket were found at Srikshetra, Myanmar. The ashes of heroic kings of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, buried in stupas, also contribute to understanding socio-political ideas. Additionally, some Buddhist monuments in India, Thailand, and Myanmar feature circumambulatory paths. These paths were designed not only for veneration and movement around the stupa but also for observing the sculptures and decorations as symbols of political stature, highlighting the importance of durability and grandeur in Buddhist structures. Epigraphic records from the Pinya period indicate that King Uzana enlarged and reinforced eight original small stupas built by primary donors, reflecting the overarching socio-political ideas of the time aimed at promoting the growth and development of Buddhism and its structures.

larger stupa, dedicated to the father of the Buddha, was constructed during the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) period in the 6th century BCE, while the smaller stupa, dedicated to Queen Maha Devi, the mother of the Buddha, was built later.

The centre of the larger stupa originally consisted of a mud structure. In the second phase of construction, this mud stupa was encased in tapered bricks (Rijal, 1979, pp 39-42). Archaeological evidence indicates that the inner stupa of the larger structure was initially made of mud and was later encased and enlarged with bricks. This process of encasement and enlargement by secondary donors aimed to strengthen and elaborate the original structure, reflecting socio-political ideas and ensuring its longevity for the development of Buddhism and Buddhist structures. Excavations at Dhamnihawa suggest that the inner mud structure may have been constructed during the lifetime of the Buddha.

In Vaishali, a Buddha’s relic stupa originally built by the Lichchhavis was encased and enlarged by later kings in successive periods. The original inner structure, which may date back to pre-Asokan times, was made of mud and was encased with bricks four times to strengthen and elaborate it. Most Buddhist stupas in India from the pre-Asokan period were constructed of mud, while those from the Mauryan period were made of both mud and brick (Mitra, 1971). Archaeological excavations reveal that the inner stupa at Sanchi was originally built of brick and was later encased and enlarged with stones during the Sunga period to enhance its durability. During the Mauryan period, inner stupas were often made of mud, which deteriorated easily, whereas later structures were primarily of brick. Concerned with the preservation of these original mud structures, subsequent donors encased and enlarged them with stones or bricks, often performing this process five or six times. These actions reflect the socio-political ideas influencing the growth and prosperity of Buddhism and its structures.

While the original Mauryan-period structures were simple in design, later constructions were more elaborately decorated (Mitra, 1971; ASI, 1996, pp 85-88).

Typically, the inner stupas are older and smaller, whereas the outer stupas are younger and larger in India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar. This pattern indicates that later donors were motivated to build more elaborate and larger structures than those created by the primary donors, driven by socio-political ideas. Encasement thus plays a crucial role in the development of stronger and larger Buddhist structures, contributing significantly to the socio-political context of the time.

Epigraphic records indicate that King Uzana, during the Pinya period, encased and enlarged eight stupas, including the Tamote Shwegugyi temple. The Shwezigon stupa stone inscription, dated 1325 CE and located in the ancient city of Makkhaya, Kyaukse region, records that King Uzana enlarged and encased a previous small stupa known as the Mahtaw stupa (Moe, 2008).

Similarly, the Nan Oo stupa stone inscription, dated 1329 CE, mentions that King Uzana also enlarged and encased a small stupa to make it larger, stronger, and more elaborate (Nan Oo stupa stone inscription, 2007).

According to the Mahtaw Zedi stone inscription, dated 1335 CE, King Uzana enlarged and encased the Mahtaw Zedi stupa, originally located to the south of Tapekon village in the ancient city of Myin Khone Taing, Kyaukse region, Myanmar. The enlarged stupa measured 28.80 metres in diameter (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 3, pp 351-352). The Thayegu Phaya stone inscription, dated 1336 CE, notes that a small ruined stupa was rebuilt and encased by King Uzana, resulting in a more elaborate and larger stupa with a diameter of 27.89 metres. This inscription was originally found at the Thayegugyi pagoda to the east of Kinton village, Myin Khone Taing region, Kyaukse District (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 1, p 357).

According to the King Uzana stone inscription dated 1340 CE, found between the farmyards of U Tha Paw and Daw Tin May in TadaU Township, Mandalay, Myanmar, King Uzana, a secondary donor, encased an inner stupa originally built by his son Saw Htwe. The original stupa measured 13.72 metres in diameter, and King Uzana enlarged and elaborated it to make it stronger (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 4, p 13). The Moathtaw Phaya stone inscription, inscribed by King Bodaw Phaya in 1785 CE (DHRNL, 2014, Vol 6, pp 35-38), describes a small Moathtaw stupa in the Makkhaya region that was encased and enlarged by King Uzana to a diameter of 48.00 metres in 1325 CE. Another Moathtaw Phaya stone inscription at Manpaw village in the ancient city of Myin Khone Taing, also inscribed by King Bodaw Phaya in 1785 CE (DHRNL, 2014, Vol 6, pp 94-96), mentions that a small Moathtaw stupa was encased and enlarged by King Uzana to a diameter of 28.80 metres in 1335 CE.

These stone inscriptions reveal that King Uzana encased and enlarged numerous inner stupas during his reign, contributing to the prosperity and development of Buddhism. The epigraphic records confirm how underlying socio-political ideas played a crucial role in the growth and durability of Buddhist structures, illustrating the significance of encasement concepts in Myanmar as evidenced by these inscriptions.

TO BE CONTINUED

Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar