A CCORDING to the chronicles, Bagan was founded in AD 107. Anawrahta, the first unifier of Myanmar, established “Theravada, Buddhism” with the help of Buddhist Missionary “Shin Arahan”.
Theravada Buddhism is more of a system of philosophy and practical ethics than a religion, and Buddhism is certainly not a religion.
In the coming October, the Six World Buddhist Forum is slated to take place in the city of Ningbo in east China, Zhejiang Province, with an aim to promote world peace improve the well-being and strength for building a community with a shared future for humanity. The Buddhists, experts, scholars and delegates from about 70 countries and regions around the world shall attend this forum.
Generally, in our childhood, we worship the Buddha, Dhamma and Samga according to traditional Buddhism. In this way, we have been obeying the law, disciplined, and avoiding evil since childhood.
The Five Precepts are the basic moral codes of conduct. Our life would be a truly happy one, and our society would become a much safer and more peaceful place if the Five Precepts were observed in earnest. When we examine the social implications of the Five Precepts, we find that: -
(1) To abstain from taking life (Killing)
(2) To abstain from taking what is not one’s own by right (Stealing)
(3) To abstain from sexual misconduct
(4) To abstain from untruthfulness and
(5) To abstain from intoxicating drinks and drugs
From the olden days to today, we all face absolutism, hegemonism, capitalism, neo-colonialism, fascism, terrorism and many wars because of greediness and anger. At least we can avoid many wars and armed conflicts by obeying the noble Buddhist five placepots and taking advantage of peace. So, the Five Precepts always give the destruction of life and the spirit of tolerance.
Remember the three fierce, unyielding enemies, namely, Greed (Lobha), Anger (Dosa) and Delusion (Mogha), which wage war on us.
“Theravada Buddhism advise every person to strive and work hard to achieve his goals, material or spiritual, through his efforts. It teaches every person to be kind and gentle. Buddhists are peace-loving people and have never made war. Today, there is violence everywhere in our society because many people are selfish and lack kindness.
Besides, Buddha’s “Mangala Sutta” gives us a positive Guideline for our life. If we consistently follow it, we shall progress both materially and spiritually; if we follow it, we will progress towards a happy life.
I think that if we all practice the noble Buddha’s “Mangala Sutta”, the world shall get true peace. The blessings that the Buddha enunciated in the Mangala Sutta are thirty- eight in number. If we carefully examine the thirty-eight blessings, we shall find that each is useful in itself and directly relevant to our lives. The first blessing, for example, tells us not to get involved with evil people and allow ourselves to be influenced by their wicked ways. The second one advises us to associate with good people, for such an association would bring us no harm and happiness and property.
May I say that it is the Buddha’s Dhamma that should be studied by one and all for a new insight into all mental issues that affect it?
Nowadays, there is dissatisfaction almost everywhere, and desertification creates ill feelings.
Ill-feeling creates Hatred. Hatred creates Enmity.
Enmity creates war. War creates Enemies. Enemies create Wars.
War creates Enemies and so on in a vicious circle.
Therefore, it is time for us to work and learn how to live the Buddha’s way successfully. Life, like the sea, has its waves of tricks, but the Buddha-Dhamma winds are strong enough to bring us through each wave successfully.
The noble Buddha, who points the way to eternal peace, has said,
“Victory breeds more Enmity and Hatred. Defeat brings humiliation, Frustration and all kinds of Disharmony. If the cause of strife is removed, there will be no more strife and Enmity and thus peace of mind and body will be secured”.
Every day, in a routine way, we may also strive to gain awareness of the Noble Eight-Fold Path, especially Right thought, speech, action, livelihood and effort. Every time our behaviour, which can be based on the moral (Sila), is free from “Lobha” (Greed), “Dosa” (Anger) and “Moha” (Ignorance), we should obey the virtues of loving-kind (Metta) and volition (Cetana) in connection with all social affairs every day.
Every Buddhist always pay homage to five Unique Benefactors,
(1) Gratitudes and dignities of Buddha are infinity. (Budda Guno Anando)
(2) Gratitudes and dignities of doctrines are countless (Dhamma Guno Anando)
(3) Gratitudes and dignities of monks have no limit. (Samgha Guno Anando)
(4) Gratitudes and dignities of parents are beyond. (Mata Petu Guno Anando)
(5) Gratitudes and dignities of teachers are limitless. (Accariya Guno Anando)
(1) We take refuge in the Buddha
(2) We take refuge in the Dhamma
(3) We take refuge in the Samgha
(4) We take refuge in the Parents
(5) We take refuge in the Teachers
(1) We observe the precept to abstain from attending to and killing living beings.
(2) We observe the precept to abstain from stealing and trying to spend one’s wealth.
(3) We observe the precept to abstain from sexual misconduct and unlawful cruel indulgence in another’s wife or husband.
(4) We observe the precept to abstain from telling all and from speaking filthy language to hurt part and parcel of another.
(5) We observe the precept to abstain from intoxication and drug abuse.
In conclusion, according to the five processes, our life would be truly happy, and our society would become safer and more peaceful, at least in the world. They will be able to live happily in a way that is genuinely Buddhist.
Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar
Buddhist Monuments with Circumambulatory Corridors
In 1873, Alexander Cunningham, a renowned archaeologist and the father of Indian archaeology excavated the Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh, India. This stupa, which is one of the encased stupas in India, was found to have a circumambulatory path. Although smaller than the larger stupas at Sanchi, Bhattiprolu, or Amravati, the Bharhut stupa features remarkable sculptural details. The circumambulatory corridor was designed not only for the act of veneration and circumambulation around the stupa but also to allow observers to appreciate the sculptures and ornamentations as part of the socio-political context.
Similarly, the Dharmarajika stupa in Sarnath reveals six successive encasements through archaeological excavations. Notably, circumambulatory paths (Pradakshina-Patha) were added during the second and third phases of enlargement (Mitra, 1971, pp 66-69). At the Amaravati stupa, a circumambulatory passageway was introduced later, positioned between the railing and the drum of the stupa (Mitra, 1971, pp 200-204).
In contrast, the Phra Pathom stupa in Thailand also features a circumambulatory corridor (see Figure 1). Soni noted that this stupa exemplifies encasement, as a new structure enveloped the original shrine to fulfil King Mongkut’s wish to protect the relics (Soni, 1991). Prior to King Rama IV’s restoration, the Phra Pathom stupa was surmounted by a prang inspired by Khmer Prasat architecture. Following the restoration, King Rama IV’s encasement introduced a gallery path between the older and newly encased outer stupas. These structures include circumambulatory paths designed not only for veneration and movement around the stupa but also for the observation and study of the sculptures and decorations, reflecting their political significance.
Similarly, numerous Moathtaw stupas across Myanmar also feature circumambulatory corridors (Bo Kay, 1981, pp 220- 222). Many of these stupas have stone inscriptions detailing the structures built by King Asoka, providing valuable evidence of the active beliefs during the Bagan era. Some Moathtaw stupas constructed by successive kings are solid, while others are hollow with corridors. At Bagan, three Moathtaw stupas include such corridors. Temple No 1182, a uniquely shaped temple at Bagan, is one example of an encased temple featuring a circumambulatory corridor between its inner and outer structures. These corridors are not only for worship and veneration but also for moving around and studying the art and architecture of the inner and outer stupas, reflecting their socio-political context.
Currently, there are eightythree encased monuments at Bagan, making it the richest area of Buddhist monuments in Myanmar. Most of these encased structures were enlarged by secondary donors to enhance the growth and development of Buddhism and its monuments, emphasizing their socio-political stature and aiming to create stronger, larger, and more durable structures.
Inscribed Relic Caskets
In 1854, Alexander Cunningham discovered several important Buddhist sites, including Sanchi and four nearby sites — Sonari, Satdhara, Morel Khurd, and Andheri — in India, located about 10 kilometres from Sanchi. The inscribed reliquaries from these sites link them to a group of Hemavata teachers led by an individual named Gotiputa. The Hemavata may have arrived in Vidisha during the second century BCE (Sunga period), taking over older sites such as Sanchi and Satdhara while establishing new centres at Sonari, Morel Khurd, and Andheri. Inscribed relic caskets from these sites include relics of Sariputta and Mahamoggallana, chief disciples of the Buddha, which were recovered from Stupa 3 at Sanchi and Stupa 2 at Satdhara (Mitra, 1971, pp 96-99; Shaw et al, 2009). These inscriptions and archaeological findings are significant for understanding the religious and socio-political ideas of the time.
At Bhattiprolu village in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India, three unexcavated mounds were discovered in 1870. Alexander Rea conducted archaeological excavations at the site in 1892, uncovering three inscribed stone reliquaries containing crystal reliquaries, Buddha’s relics, and jewels. The base of a great stupa, measuring 40 metres in diameter, was recovered at this site. The relics, including a crystal relic casket, were found at the centre of the stupa. Additionally, a silver reliquary, a gold reliquary, a stone receptacle, a copper vessel, and numerous Buddha images were uncovered. Brahmi scripts inscribed on an urn containing Buddha relics were also found. This inscriptional and archaeological evidence highlights the socio-political purposes of enshrining Buddha’s relics, reflecting the donors’ motivations driven by both religious and political concepts. The inscriptions at Bhattiprolu suggest that the relic stupa was intended not only for worship and veneration but also to enhance social and political stature. Bhattiprolu is known for its Buddhist stupa, which was built around the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, and the inscriptions indicate that King Kaberuka ruled over Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE. Similarly, the inscribed copper relic casket discovered at Shah-ji-ki-dheri in Peshawar documents the Kushan ruler Kanishka (Mitra, 1971, pp 118-120). An inscribed gilded silver relic casket (see Figure 2) discovered at Khinba mound in 1926-27 mentioned royal donors “Sri Prabhu Varman” and “SriPrabhu Devi”, belonging to the 5th-7th century CE (Varman Dynasty) (Aung Thaw et al, 1993). These inscriptions reflect that many donors were motivated by religious and socio-political concepts, aiming to make the relic-imbued stupa prominent for veneration while also enhancing its associated social and economic benefits.
Inscribed Burial Urns
In 1911-12, four inscribed stone burial urns were discovered 183 metres south of Phayagyi stupa in Sri Kshetra, Myanmar. An additional inscribed stone burial urn (see Figure 3) was found at Payahtaung pagoda in 1993. These inscriptions recorded the royal titles, ages, reigns, and dates of demise of various kings. The urns include names such as “Hrivikrama”, “Sihavikrama”, and “Suravikrama” for the earlier period, and “Devamitra”, “Dhammaditravikrama”, “Brahimhtuvikrama”, “Sihavikrama”, “Suriravikrama”, “Harivikrama”, and “Ardhitravikrama” for the later period, dating to the 7th-8th century CE and reflecting the Vikrama Dynasty. These inscribed burial urns from Sri Kshetra provide significant insights into the socio-political ideas of the time.
In Sri Lanka, the Dekkhina Dagaba (stupa) in Anuradhapura was an encasement and enlargement of an earlier construction built over the ashes of King Duthagamani. Traces of charcoal and ashes found in the centre of the dagaba highlight the significance of this site. Similarly, the Kujjatissa Pabbata (stupa), dating to the 8th century CE and located outside the south gate of the city, contains the ashes of the Elara, buried by King Duthagamani (Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1981, p 21). These archaeological findings underscore the socio-political importance of burying the ashes of heroic kings in these stupas.
In Thailand, the Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya (2006) describe the construction of chedis at Wat Phra Si Sanphet. The first chedi, built by King Ramathibodi II (1491-1529 CE) in 1492 CE, enshrined the ashes of his father, King Borommatrailokanat (1448-1463 CE). The second chedi, constructed at the same time, was dedicated to King Borommaracha III (1463- 1488 CE), his elder brother. Forty years later, King Boromracha IV (1529-1533 CE) built the third chedi to enshrine the remains of his father, King Ramathibodi II (Cushman, 2006). The Royal Chronicles also mention that King U Thong (1350-69 CE) arranged for the cremation of two princes, Chao Keo and Chao Thai, and built Wat Pa Kaeo, a stupa, and an assembly hall in their memory. Their ashes may have been enshrined in this stupa. These findings illustrate the religious and socio-political motivations behind enshrining the ashes of heroic kings and royal families in Buddhist monuments across Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, highlighting their desire to enhance the social and economic benefits associated with these relic-imbued structures.
Conclusion
The examination of enlarged Buddhist structures, inscribed relic caskets, and burial urns reveals significant socio-political and religious dimensions of Buddhist monument development across South and Southeast Asia. From the early mud stupas of Kapilvastu to the sophisticated encased stupas of Bagan and the circumambulatory corridors found in India, Myanmar and Thailand, these architectural and epigraphic records underscore the integration of religious devotion with socio-political ideologies.
The practice of encasing and enlarging stupas, as seen in the actions of King Uzana in Myanmar and various Indian dynasties, reflects a broader trend where subsequent rulers sought to enhance and preserve earlier structures, aligning their contributions with both religious merit and political stature. Similarly, inscribed relic caskets and burial urns from sites such as Bhattiprolu, Sanchi, and Sri Kshetra provide valuable insights into the motivations behind these monumental acts. They reveal how the veneration of relics and the enshrinement of royal ashes served not only spiritual purposes but also reinforced the socio-political status of the donors.
The inclusion of circumambulatory corridors, as evidenced in the stupas of Bharhut, Dharmarajika, and Phra Pathom, illustrates how architectural modifications were employed to enhance the devotional experience and assert political legitimacy. These corridors facilitated both worship and observation of artistic embellishments, contributing to the stupa’s prominence and durability.
In summary, the study of these Buddhist monuments illustrates how religious practices were intertwined with socio-political objectives. The effort to enlarge these structures and inscribe the relic caskets and burial urns highlights a dynamic interplay between spiritual aspirations and the assertion of political power. This interplay not only reflects the enduring legacy of Buddhist art and architecture but also the ways in which it was employed to reinforce and perpetuate socio-political ideologies across centuries and regions.
References
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Director General of Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi.
Aung Thaw, U, Myint Aung, Sein Maung Oo and Than Swe. (1993). Shae haung Myanmar myo daw mya [Ancient Myanmar Cities]. Yangon: Ministry of Information.
Bo Kay, U. (1981). Bagan thu te tha na lan nyun [Guide to Bagan Research]. Sapay Beikhman Press, Yangon.
Cushman, Richard D., and David K. Wyatt. (2006). The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya.
Bangkok: Siam Society,
DHRNL. (2014). Mandalay Mahamuni dataing awin shi kyauksarmyar (Atwe-Chauk). Stone Inscriptions are located in the walled enclosure of the Mahamuni stupa. Vol-6, Theikpan Press, Mandalay.
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Mitra, Debala. (1971). Buddhist Monuments. Shishu Sahityu Samsad Pvt. Ld., The India Press Pvt Ld., Calcutta.
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Nyein Maung, U. (1972). Shae haung Myanmar kyauk sar myar (Atwe-tit) [Ancient Myanmar Stone Inscriptions (Volume-1)], Yangon: Department of Archaeology.
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Nyein Maung, U. (1998). Shae haung Myanmar kyauk sar myar (Atwe-lay) [Ancient Myanmar Stone Inscriptions (Volume-4)], Yangon: Department of Archaeology.
Rijal, Babu K. (1979). Archaeological Remains of Kapilvastu, Lumbini, and Devadaha,
Educational Enterprises (PVT) LTD, Kathmandu.
Shaw, Julia, (2009). Stupas, Monasteries and Relics in the Landscape: Typological, Spatial, and Temporal Patterns in the Sanchi Area, Institute of Archaeology, University College London.
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Motilal Banarsidass Publishers PVT.LTD, Delhi.
Introduction
Bagan was the heart of the largest Buddhist empire in the medieval world, serving as a centre of economic, socio-political, and cultural networks that actively exchanged ideas and goods with other regions. The Buddhist culture of Bagan was enriched by a synthesis of Pala Indian styles and local doctrines, fostering religious and royal interactions that were reflected in its extensive architecture, mural paintings, and epigraphic records. The construction of Buddhist monuments in Bagan facilitated exchanges between donors and the royal court, establishing Bagan as the capital of this empire from the 10th century CE, with its peak period occurring between the 11th and 13th centuries CE. During this time, Bagan became the primary focus of religious activity, with the tradition of merit-making playing a crucial role in its development. Many religious structures from this era still survive in Bagan today.
The socio-political ideology in Bagan was characterized by the integration of social and political life, with village life (the heart of Bagan) being centred around Buddhism and the support of the monastic community.
Stupas and temples manifested royalty and social hierarchy by demonstrating power through donatory activities. The kings who ruled during the Bagan period exemplified proper actions and morals, reinforcing the Buddha’s teachings through artistic works such as murals, glazed plaques, and terracotta plaques.
Numerous socio-political ideas are reflected in Buddhist monuments across India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar. At various Buddhist sites in India, such as Kapilvastu in Nepal, original mud Buddhist structures have been discovered. These structures were often enlarged and encased with bricks or stones by subsequent donors to ensure their longevity and durability, reflecting the socio-political ideas of the time. Inscribed reliquaries, such as those found at the Piprahwa and Bhattiprolu stupas, reveal insights into the relics of the Buddha. Similarly, reliquaries from Stupa 3 at Sanchi and Stupa 2 at Satdhara contain inscriptions regarding the relics of the Buddha’s chief disciples, Sariputta and Mahamoggallana.
Additional inscribed reliquaries discovered at Sanchi Stupa 2 and other Bhilsa Tope sites relate to a group of Hemavata teachers led by an individual named Gotiputa, providing valuable insights into religious and socio-political ideas.
An inscribed copper relic casket was discovered at Shahji-ki-Dheri, the site of an ancient Kanishka stupa in Peshawar, Pakistan, while inscribed stone burial urns and a gilded silver relic casket were found at Srikshetra, Myanmar. The ashes of heroic kings of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, buried in stupas, also contribute to understanding socio-political ideas. Additionally, some Buddhist monuments in India, Thailand, and Myanmar feature circumambulatory paths. These paths were designed not only for veneration and movement around the stupa but also for observing the sculptures and decorations as symbols of political stature, highlighting the importance of durability and grandeur in Buddhist structures. Epigraphic records from the Pinya period indicate that King Uzana enlarged and reinforced eight original small stupas built by primary donors, reflecting the overarching socio-political ideas of the time aimed at promoting the growth and development of Buddhism and its structures.
larger stupa, dedicated to the father of the Buddha, was constructed during the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) period in the 6th century BCE, while the smaller stupa, dedicated to Queen Maha Devi, the mother of the Buddha, was built later.
The centre of the larger stupa originally consisted of a mud structure. In the second phase of construction, this mud stupa was encased in tapered bricks (Rijal, 1979, pp 39-42). Archaeological evidence indicates that the inner stupa of the larger structure was initially made of mud and was later encased and enlarged with bricks. This process of encasement and enlargement by secondary donors aimed to strengthen and elaborate the original structure, reflecting socio-political ideas and ensuring its longevity for the development of Buddhism and Buddhist structures. Excavations at Dhamnihawa suggest that the inner mud structure may have been constructed during the lifetime of the Buddha.
In Vaishali, a Buddha’s relic stupa originally built by the Lichchhavis was encased and enlarged by later kings in successive periods. The original inner structure, which may date back to pre-Asokan times, was made of mud and was encased with bricks four times to strengthen and elaborate it. Most Buddhist stupas in India from the pre-Asokan period were constructed of mud, while those from the Mauryan period were made of both mud and brick (Mitra, 1971). Archaeological excavations reveal that the inner stupa at Sanchi was originally built of brick and was later encased and enlarged with stones during the Sunga period to enhance its durability. During the Mauryan period, inner stupas were often made of mud, which deteriorated easily, whereas later structures were primarily of brick. Concerned with the preservation of these original mud structures, subsequent donors encased and enlarged them with stones or bricks, often performing this process five or six times. These actions reflect the socio-political ideas influencing the growth and prosperity of Buddhism and its structures.
While the original Mauryan-period structures were simple in design, later constructions were more elaborately decorated (Mitra, 1971; ASI, 1996, pp 85-88).
Typically, the inner stupas are older and smaller, whereas the outer stupas are younger and larger in India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar. This pattern indicates that later donors were motivated to build more elaborate and larger structures than those created by the primary donors, driven by socio-political ideas. Encasement thus plays a crucial role in the development of stronger and larger Buddhist structures, contributing significantly to the socio-political context of the time.
Epigraphic records indicate that King Uzana, during the Pinya period, encased and enlarged eight stupas, including the Tamote Shwegugyi temple. The Shwezigon stupa stone inscription, dated 1325 CE and located in the ancient city of Makkhaya, Kyaukse region, records that King Uzana enlarged and encased a previous small stupa known as the Mahtaw stupa (Moe, 2008).
Similarly, the Nan Oo stupa stone inscription, dated 1329 CE, mentions that King Uzana also enlarged and encased a small stupa to make it larger, stronger, and more elaborate (Nan Oo stupa stone inscription, 2007).
According to the Mahtaw Zedi stone inscription, dated 1335 CE, King Uzana enlarged and encased the Mahtaw Zedi stupa, originally located to the south of Tapekon village in the ancient city of Myin Khone Taing, Kyaukse region, Myanmar. The enlarged stupa measured 28.80 metres in diameter (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 3, pp 351-352). The Thayegu Phaya stone inscription, dated 1336 CE, notes that a small ruined stupa was rebuilt and encased by King Uzana, resulting in a more elaborate and larger stupa with a diameter of 27.89 metres. This inscription was originally found at the Thayegugyi pagoda to the east of Kinton village, Myin Khone Taing region, Kyaukse District (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 1, p 357).
According to the King Uzana stone inscription dated 1340 CE, found between the farmyards of U Tha Paw and Daw Tin May in TadaU Township, Mandalay, Myanmar, King Uzana, a secondary donor, encased an inner stupa originally built by his son Saw Htwe. The original stupa measured 13.72 metres in diameter, and King Uzana enlarged and elaborated it to make it stronger (Nyein Maung, 1983, Vol 4, p 13). The Moathtaw Phaya stone inscription, inscribed by King Bodaw Phaya in 1785 CE (DHRNL, 2014, Vol 6, pp 35-38), describes a small Moathtaw stupa in the Makkhaya region that was encased and enlarged by King Uzana to a diameter of 48.00 metres in 1325 CE. Another Moathtaw Phaya stone inscription at Manpaw village in the ancient city of Myin Khone Taing, also inscribed by King Bodaw Phaya in 1785 CE (DHRNL, 2014, Vol 6, pp 94-96), mentions that a small Moathtaw stupa was encased and enlarged by King Uzana to a diameter of 28.80 metres in 1335 CE.
These stone inscriptions reveal that King Uzana encased and enlarged numerous inner stupas during his reign, contributing to the prosperity and development of Buddhism. The epigraphic records confirm how underlying socio-political ideas played a crucial role in the growth and durability of Buddhist structures, illustrating the significance of encasement concepts in Myanmar as evidenced by these inscriptions.
TO BE CONTINUED
Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar
THE United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) is scheduled to convene for a “Summit of the Future” in New York on 22-23 September 2024. The outcome of this meeting of world leaders will be the adoption of a “Pact for the Future”. During the past year, the details of the Pact have been discussed among the 193 UN member-states under the co-facilitation of Germany (representing the developed countries of the North) and Namibia (representing the developing countries of the South). The objective of the Pact is “to safeguard the future for present and coming generations”.
India’s approach towards the UN’s Summit of the Future was articulated by Indian External Affairs Minister Dr S Jaishankar in 2023. He emphasized the need to demonstrate “genuine solidarity” to generate “real trust” and integrate the “sentiment of the Global South” in preparing for the Summit. During the discussions in the UNGA in May 2024, India cautioned that if these essential elements were missing from the process, the Summit of the Future would become a “Summit of the Past”, condemning the United Nations “to a perilous vicious cycle of fading into irrelevance”.
The Global South consists of developing country member-states of the UNGA, many of them former colonies of European powers in 1945 who did not negotiate the UN Charter. Their membership in the United Nations began with the historic process of decolonization that began after India’s independence from British colonial rule in August 1947.
The Global South became a majority in the UNGA, propelled by the Decolonization Resolution of December 1960. The first visible expression of solidarity of the Global South in multilateralism was the successful adoption by a two-thirds majority vote of UNGA resolutions in December 1963 to amend the UN Charter. These amendments resulted in expanding the representation of the Global South in the UN Security Council (UNSC), which controls decisions on peace and security, and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which controls UNGA decision-making on socioeconomic issues.
Since 1960, the process of consolidation and prioritization of Global South priorities has been marked by several negotiating landmarks in multilateral institutions. This was due to the solidarity and sentiment of the Global South, based on trust in the effective and equitable functioning of the interlinked post-war multilateral system.
Among the Global South’s achievements have been the creation of the non-aligned movement in September 1961 which today brings together 120 member-states in the UNGA; the establishment of the Group of 77 (or G-77) in 1964 which today represents 134 out of 193 member-states in the UNGA; the creation of the UN Development Programme (UNDP) by the UNGA in 1965; the adoption of the G-77 Charter of Algiers in 1967 calling for a New International Economic Order; the Decision on Differential and More Preferable Treatment (also known as the Enabling Clause) for developing countries in the GATT (precursor of the World Trade Organization) in 1979; the UNGA Declaration on the Right to Development (DRTD) as an inalienable human right in 1986; and the Common but Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR) provision of international law, codified by the UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992.
Through patient and forward-looking negotiations in the UNGA between 1960-2015, the Global South/G-77 has succeeded in bringing “development” into the mainstream of multilateralism. The unanimous adoption of Agenda 2030 by the UNGA in September 2015, with its 17 Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDGs), is an acknowledgement of this fact. Agenda 2030 converges the common interests of the Global North and Global South into an integrated human-centric framework in which peace, security, and development are interlinked. This is the sentiment that the Global South seeks to integrate into the vision of the Summit of the Future.
The UN’s SDG Summit in 2023, held to assess the implementation of Agenda 2030, warned that numerous crises since 2015 have been derailing this vision. Unless checked, these can have a deleterious impact on the Global South, particularly on the application of new digital technologies in a human-centric manner to accelerate the implementation of Agenda 2030. The Summit of the Future’s consideration of a Global Digital Compact requires special attention to the sentiments of the Global South in order to bridge existing digital divides enumerated during the UNGA review of the UN’s Tunis Agenda on an Information Society in December 2015.
The Global South’s focus during the Summit of the Future must be to seek effective multilateralism on the ground. A decision to convene a UN General Conference, as provided for in Article 109 of the UN Charter, to review the UN Charter in September 2025 would be an appropriate way to mark the 80th anniversary of multilateralism by integrating the aspirations of the Global South.
Myanmar has a rich cultural heritage, natural beauty, and diverse ethnic groups, and it offers a unique opportunity to develop an integrated travel and tourism approach that can benefit local communities and provide an enriching experience for local travellers and tourists. Integrated travel and tourism in Myanmar can be considered promoted through several vital aspects, and the following are some all-inclusive steps to approach these considerations;
1. Market Research and Analysis
- Identify Target Markets: Determine who the potential tourists are (domestic, regional, international) and what their preferences and needs are.
- Competitive Analysis: Study other countries with successful integrated tourism models to understand best practices and potential challenges.
- SWOT Analysis: Conduct a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis of Myanmar’s tourism sector.
2. Sustainable Tourism Development
- Environmental Conservation: Implement policies that protect natural resources and promote eco-friendly tourism. Encourage practices like waste management, conservation of wildlife, and protection of natural habitats.
- Cultural Heritage Preservation: Ensure that tourism activities do not harm historical sites and cultural landmarks. Work with local communities to maintain and showcase their traditions and customs.
- Community Involvement: Engage local communities in tourism planning and development to ensure their needs and perspectives are considered.
3. Infrastructure Development
- Transport: Improve accessibility to tourist destinations by enhancing roads, airports, and public transport systems. Consider developing sustainable transport options like electric buses or bikes.
- Accommodation and Facilities: Upgrade existing hotels, resorts, and other accommodation facilities to meet international standards. Promote the development of eco-lodges and community-based homestays.
4. Community Engagement
- Local Involvement: Engage local communities in tourism planning and decision-making processes. Provide training and capacity-building programmes to help them benefit economically from tourism.
- Empowerment: Encourage local entrepreneurship by supporting small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the tourism sector, such as local guides, artisans, and food vendors. 5. Combined Tourism Packages
- Thematic Tours: Develop themed travel packages (e.g., cultural tours, adventure tours, eco-tours) that integrate various attractions and activities.
- Multi-Destination Tours: Create tours that connect different regions and highlight the diversity of Myanmar, such as combining urban experiences with rural and natural attractions.
- Collaborative Partnerships: Work with local businesses, tour operators, and international agencies to create comprehensive packages that offer diverse experiences.
6. Marketing and Promotion
- Branding: Develop a strong brand identity for Myanmar as a unique and attractive travel destination. Highlight its diverse culture, rich history, and natural beauty.
- Digital Presence: Utilize social media, websites, and other digital platforms to promote tourism. Offer virtual tours and interactive experiences to attract international tourists.
- Trade Shows and Exhibitions: Participate in international travel and tourism fairs to promote Myanmar as a travel destination.
7. Partnerships and Collaboration
- Public-Private Partnerships: Foster collaborations between government bodies, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to pool resources and expertise.
- International Cooperation: Work with international tourism organizations and neighbouring countries to create regional travel packages and joint promotional activities.
8. Policy and Regulation
- Regulatory Framework: Establish clear policies and regulations that govern tourism activities, ensuring they are sustainable and beneficial to local communities.
- Incentives: Provide incentives for businesses and investors who adopt sustainable practices and contribute to local development.
9. Education and Training
- Skill Development: Offer education and training programmes for individuals seeking careers in tourism and hospitality. Focus on areas like customer service, language skills, and sustainable tourism practices.
- Awareness Campaigns: Conduct awareness campaigns to educate tourists and locals about the importance of preserving the environment and respecting cultural heritage.
10. Monitoring and Evaluation
- Impact Assessment: Regularly assess the impact of tourism on the environment, economy, and local communities. Use these assessments to make informed decisions and adjustments.
- Feedback Mechanisms: Establish channels for tourists and locals to provide feedback on tourism services and experiences, using this feedback to improve offerings.
In addition, Myanmar can develop a robust travel and tourism sector that leverages its unique strengths and offers meaningful experiences for visitors. By focusing on the above-mentioned areas, Myanmar can develop and promote an integrated travel and tourism industry that is sustainable, inclusive, and beneficial to both visitors and local communities as well as for our country.
Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar
Myanmar hosted the 4th BIMSTEC National Security Chiefs’ Meeting successfully on 24-26 July.
Security chiefs of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, as well as member states of BIMSTEC, attended the meeting. During the meeting, the participants frankly discussed the matters pertaining to combatting terrorism and narcotics, challenges of maritime security and cyber security, practical cooperation in information sharing in relevant security affairs, ongoing security affairs in the regions, and preparations to be made to overcome the possible security-related challenges.
National security advisers who attended the meeting, have highly vested powers in their respective governments and are the policy makers for international relations and national security affairs. Hence, their attendance and constructive talks were highly conducive to the SAC Government. The SAC Government strengthened its legitimacy because of the successful completion of such Senior Officials’ Meeting in Myanmar. Again, the meeting also provided ample opportunity for political, economic, and security cooperation and diplomatic prestige.
In particular, since neighbouring countries like Thailand, Bangladesh, and India are BIMSTEC member states, the ways to address armed conflicts and combat drug-trafficking along the border areas in a collaborative manner could be discussed.
BIMSTEC is a strong regional organization which is regarded as a product of the convergence of Thailand’s Look West Policy, which seeks to strengthen economic relations with neighbouring countries and beyond, and India’s Look East Policy, which seeks to cultivate economic relations closely with the nations of Southeast Asia.
BIMSTEC came into being on 6 June 1997. It was initially known as BIST-EC (Bangladesh-India-Sri Lanka-Thailand Economic Cooperation) and was comprised of Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. With Myanmar joining on 22 December 1997, the organization was renamed BIMST-EC (Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand Economic Cooperation). Bhutan and Nepal became new members of
BIMSTEC in 2004. As of 2023, the BIMSTEC region is home to around 1.8 billion people, that is, nearly 22 per cent of the global population, with a combined gross domestic product (GDP) of USD 3.6 trillion. BIMSTEC is also considered a bridge between South Asia and Southeast Asia. Through this, it is an important organization to link the East Asia Region.
The BIMSTEC Charter prescribes that cooperation within the BIMSTEC will be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, non-interference in internal affairs, non-aggression, peaceful co-existence, mutual respect and mutual benefit. It also states that all decisions will be based on the consensus.
BIMSTEC differs from other organizations, which are comprised of different countries with diverse societies, faiths, languages, and cultural heritage. All Member States are carrying out activities to promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the economic, social, technical and scientific fields.
BIMSTEC is working under four main mechanisms: Summit, Ministerial Meeting, Senior Officials’ Meeting and BIMSTEC Working Group Meeting.
It mainly aims to create collaboration for rapid economic and social development. Nonetheless, it comes to take into consideration not only traditional security threats but also nontraditional security threats due to geopolitics, transnational organized crimes, arms smuggling, and narcotics smuggling. It also focuses on maritime security because of the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea.
During the 4th BIMSTEC National Security Chiefs’ Meeting, the Member States discussed matters and shared experiences to prevent the spread of terrorism and violent extremism and eliminate illegal narcotics smuggling in the region under the theme “Regional countries’ cooperation in combatting terrorism and illegal narcotics”. The meeting gave means, opportunities and ideas for cooperation in counter-terrorism in the host country, Myanmar, as well as the region. It also explored collaborative ways to prevent nontraditional threats.
Myanmar geopolitically plays a vital role in links between ASEAN countries and South Asian ones. The successful completion of the BIMSTEC National Security Chiefs’ Meeting is an excellent movement for Myanmar in diplomatic relations and gave it the potential to trade promotion with the BIMSTEC Member States.
It had many opportunities for making border trade cooperation with India, which had 1.4 billion people in the West, rather than relying on China alone in the East. Again, it could seek ways to trade with Middle Eastern and European countries through India, the leading nation among BIMSTEC Member States.
BIMSTEC can link the cooperation between the two regional organizations as it comprises some Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Member States of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) as well.
Myanmar’s neighbouring countries, Thailand and Laos, are in ASEAN Member States. Likewise, its neighbouring countries like Thailand, Bangladesh and India have joined the BIMSTEC. The neighbouring countries in BIMSTEC have a righteous attitude towards Myanmar. They have a balanced view and cooperation for mutual interests.
The active participation of the SAC Government, which is being blocked by diplomatic means, in BIMSTEC is very beneficial not only for BIMSTEC but also for Myanmar.
Since international terrorism and transnational crimes are posing threats to economic development and social progress in the BIMSTEC region, the meeting adopted policies and plans, including the exchange of information, to effectively combat terrorism and transnational crimes. In this regard, Myanmar is carrying out anti-narcotics measures.
Today, most global countries can no longer stand alone due to political, economic, social and security conditions. Only when it cooperates with another country or other countries will progress in the political, economic, social, and security sectors be achieved, and economic development will be made, too. Under these circumstances, regional organizations like BIMSTEC and ASEAN have been established to facilitate cooperation between the countries in the region.
Geographically, Myanmar, as a land connectivity between Southeast Asian and South Asian countries, can link a connection between BIMSTEC and ASEAN. I write this article stating that Myanmar is a unique country that can help combat terrorism in the security sector as well as eliminate narcotics and create not only the prospect but also a favourable environment for rapid economic development in the sub-region, the BIMSTEC’s vision.
Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar
IF the December 2023 figures of 700 foreign visitors to Inle (pronounced Inn Lay) are anything to go by, it would be a case study of a major tourist attraction in ‘perpetual recuperation mode’.
Recalling the heydays during the 2013 to 2016 periods, when boatmen had difficulties finding slips for their motorised sampans, said Aung Lin, one of the few remaining boatmen, playing their trade transporting visitors around the real Venice of Asia. Now, many of them have either given up or been toiling and praying for their daily continuance after getting bruised for four consecutive years due to the double jeopardy of COVID-19 and politics.
Gone were the days when thousands of domestic and foreign visitors descended upon Inn Lay Lake to enjoy the uniqueness of nature, putting this vast lake up on top of an enormous plateau. People have to queue just to get onto the sampans. Jetties were precious assets, and tourists waited for their turns to get on board. The expansive lake is bustling with activities, from the feeding of the seagulls, admiring fishermen on skiffs, stepping on floating strips of islets used for growing tomatoes, visiting many unique attractions, and simply waving each other from mechanised sampans.
I went to Inn Lay in the middle of January to check out the reality of the circumstances. Alas, the flight from Yangon was packed for both legs. A group of Korean tourists were spotted on the same flight with us. Sadly, on our boat ride to the hotel, during our three-night stay or on tours of the attractions, we ended up ‘Waving into Thin Air’, crisp and freezing, in this desolate beauty of nature, disheartened and dispirited by ineluctable causes, perforce.
As Confucius once said, ‘We must accept finite disappointment, but never lose infinite hope’. The glimmer of hope arises just like a phoenix arising from the ashes of its previous life, starting with the resort that we stayed in. Only with a couple or so of villas occupied during our mini break, Villa Inle Boutique Resort is keeping its operational costs to a minimum by growing its own organic vegetables and operating a small poultry farm producing organic eggs – An ultimate combination of freshness and nature perhaps. I have spoken to a few other hoteliers around the lake; they also have upcoming batches of visitors from abroad to add whatever little vibrancy they can to the destination. I also spoke to car leasing operators. All have downsized their operations and possessions for their continued survival. One such operator, Thura, has already sold off two of his vehicles and is now just operating with one car. He said he did not have a choice and knew no other way of earning a living now.
Adding to their despair is the deficient infrastructure, poor law and order and present high-security environment. Electricity supply has always been a shortcoming in Myanmar, but the situation is made worse by NNCP terrorist at tacks on electrical infrastructure and government despondency to implement any major infra projects during and after COVID-19. This is adding woes to the hotels as the first question most domestic tourists and local visitors typically ask would be, ‘Would there be a 24-hour electrical supply during my stay?’. Even in boutique hotels such as Ville Inle, which charges around $100 a night, the cost of running a generator to affect uninterrupted power supply would be set back by more than per night revenues from a couple of rooms. More so for larger hotels. With a significantly reduced number of visitors during this peak season, this is a promise that hotels simply cannot fulfill.
Recent shortages in fuel supply have all the hotels and other businesses scrambling to get limited supply at exorbitant prices, exacerbating operational losses for all wanting to put on a better show during this holiday season.
Political changes and anti-government activities have made the law and order situation worse, too. Even crooked villagers became more daring, attempting a variety of methods to extort money out of good businesses operating in and around Inn Lay.
The security situation all across the country is demanding the creation of barbicans and barricades at multiple junctions around Inn Lay, and this is forcing visitors and the general public to stay home after sunset. This is a stark contrast to lively night scenes as late as five years ago.
Can Inle survive?
Just like in war, speed is essential to survival. Speed of action, strategy and successful implantation. The difficulty here is not in individual attempts but in teamwork that involves government (ministries), businesses, media and private individuals from here and abroad, pushing the wheels of improvements into motion.
Government help is needed in infrastructure (especially electricity), security, nationwide promotions and convincing people to support local attractions. Businesses must also find innovative ways to promote, survive, and generate alternative income. Media assistance is most needed to reflect the truth about Myanmar, combat fake news that infected the minds of international visitors and prevent tourist arrivals en masse. Visitors from home and abroad must also adjust their expectations and increase their support for the local economy of Inle through spending on handicrafts and tours and enjoying longer vacations.
Without such efforts, the laggard attraction will continue to remain in the doldrums for many years to come. It may end up being in a slow death and becoming a desert of dejection and despair, doomed due to despondency from all stakeholders concerned.
Source- www.moi.gov.mm
THE Central Conference on Work Relating to Foreign Affairs was held in Beijing on 27-28 December 2023. Chinese President Xi Jinping attended the conference and delivered an important address. Xi Jinping presented a systematic review of the historic achievements and valuable experience of major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics in the new era, gave a profound exposition on the international environment and historical mission of China’s external work on the new journey, and made comprehensive plans for China’s external work for the present and coming periods. I would like to introduce the conference to friends from all walks of life in Myanmar and share some views on promoting the development of China-Myanmar relations.
It was pointed out at the conference that building a community with a shared future for mankind is the core tenet of Xi Jinping’s Thoughts on Diplomacy. The goal is to build an open, inclusive, clean and beautiful world of lasting peace, universal security and shared prosperity, and the pathway is promoting global governance that features extensive consultation and joint contribution for shared benefit; the guiding principle is to apply the common values of humanity, the basic underpinning lies in building a new type of international relations, the strategic guidance comes from the implementation of the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative and the Global Civilization Initiative, and the platform for action is high-quality Belt and Road cooperation. On this basis, we seek to bring countries together to meet challenges, achieve prosperity for all and usher in a bright future of peace, security, prosperity and progress for our world.
To build a community with a shared future for mankind, China calls for an equal and orderly multipolar world and a universally beneficial and inclusive economic globalization. An equal and orderly multipolar world is one in which all countries, regardless of size, are treated as equals, hegemonism and power politics are rejected, and democracy is truly promoted in international relations.The purposes and principles of the United Nations Charter must be observed by all, the universally recognized basic norms governing international relations must be upheld by all, and true multilateralism must be practised.
A universally beneficial and inclusive economic globalization is one that meets the common needs of all countries, especially developing countries, and properly addresses the development imbalances between and within countries resulting from the global allocation of resources. It is important to resolutely oppose the attempt to roll back globalization and abuse the concept of security, oppose all forms of unilateralism and protectionism, firmly promote trade and investment liberalization and facilitation, overcome the structural problems hindering the healthy development of the world economy, and make economic globalization more open, inclusive, balanced and beneficial to all.
China and Myanmar, linked by mountains and rivers, enjoy a profound “Pauk-Phaw” friendship. During President Xi Jinping’s historic visit to Myanmar in 2020, the two sides agreed to work together to build a China-Myanmar community with a shared future. This year marks the 70th anniversary of China, Myanmar and India jointly advocating the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. We are willing to implement the spirit of the Central Conference on Work Relating to Foreign Affairs, carry forward the wisdom and experience of China-Myanmar friendly exchanges, practice the Principle of Amity, Sincerity, Mutual Benefit and Inclusiveness in Neighbourhood Diplomacy, and work with Myanmar to continue to implement the outcomes of President Xi’s historic visit to Myanmar, strengthen exchanges of experience in governance, forge synergy in implementing GDI, GSI and GCI, and deepen cooperation and pursue tangible progress in building a China-Myanmar community with a shared future.
We are willing to work with Myanmar to build the Belt and Road and the China-Myanmar Economic Corridor with high quality so as to benefit the peoples of the two countries with more practical cooperation fruits. We support Myanmar in pursuing a development path suited to its national conditions and will continue to play a constructive role in supporting the peace process in northern Myanmar and jointly maintaining peace and stability along the China-Myanmar border. We will always adhere to the people-centred development approach, deepen China-Myanmar law enforcement and security cooperation, and jointly crack down on cross-border criminal activities such as telecom and online fraud to safeguard people’s lives and properties. We are willing to work with Myanmar to deepen cooperation among Lancang-Mekong, China-ASEAN and other regional mechanisms to create a better homeland for all.
At the beginning of the New Year, I wish the people of Myanmar a harvest of peace, prosperity and happiness.
Source- The Global New Light of Myanmar